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THE  STATE  COLLEGE  OF  WASHINGTON 


Agricultural  Experiment  Station 

PULLMAN,  WASHINGTON 

DEPARTMENT  OF  CHEMISTRY 


WASHINGTON  SOILS 

By  R.  W.  Thatcher 


Bulletin  No.  85 

190  8 


«I  All  bulletins  of  this  station  sent  free  to  citizens  of  the  state  on  application 
to  the  Director. 


BOARD  OF  CONTROL 


Peter  McGregor,  President Colfax 

F.  J.  Barnard,  Treasurer Seattle 

J.  J.  Browne Spokane 

Dr.  J.  S.  Anderson  - - - - - - Asotin 

Eee  A.  Johnson Sunnyside 

A.  Bryan,  Secretary  ex  officio  ....  Pullman 

President  of  the  College. 

STATION  STAFF. 

R.  W.  Thatcher,  M.  A., Directoi  and  Chemist 

E.  E.  Elliott,  M.  S.,  Agriculturist  and  Supt.  Farmers’  Institutes 
Elton  Fulmer,  M.  A., State  Chemist 

S.  B.  Nelson,  D.  V.  M., Veterinarian 

O.  E.  Waller,  Ph.  M., Irrigation  Engineer 

R.  K.  Beattie,  A.  M., Botanist 

WalterS.  Thornber,  M.S. Horticulturist 

A.  E.  Melander,  M.  S. Entomologist 

George  Severance,  B.  S., Agronomist 

C.  W.  Eawrence,  B.  S. Cerealist 

W.  A EinklaTER,  B.  S.  A.  - - - - Animal  Husbandman 

H.  B.  Berry,  B.  S., Soil  Physicist 

W.  E.  Ralston,  D.  V.  M. Assistant  Veterinarian 

H.  R.  Watkins,  M.  S. Assistant  Chemist 

A.  G.  Craig,  B.  S. Assistant  Horticulturist 

W.  T.  Shaw,  B.  S. Assistant  Zoologist 


Washington  Soils 

By  R.  W.  Thatcher 


In  the  fall  of  1893  the  Chemistry  Department  of  this 
Station  commenced  what  was  planned  to  be  an  '‘exhaustive 
soil  survey  of  the  state.’ ’ Work  in  connection  with  this  sur- 
vey has  been  in  progress,  as  opportunity  permitted,  ever 
since  that  time.  Two  bulletins  reporting  results  obtained 
have  been  issued.  Bulletin  No.  13,  by  Elton  Fulmer  and  C. 
C.  Fletcher,  was  issued  in  1894,  and  contained  a discussion 
of  the  purposes  of  the  work  and  the  benefits  which  it  was 
hoped  might  accrue  from  it,  the  results  of  the  analyses  of 
twenty  different  samples  of  soil,  a comparison  of  the  chemi- 
cal composition  of  some  of  these  with  typical  fertile  soils 
from  other  states,  and  a report  of  the  analyses  of  eight  sam- 
ples of  soil  from  what  is  now  Benton  County  of  this  state, 
made  by  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 
Bulletin  No.  55,  by  Elton  Fulmer,  was  issued  in  1902.  It 
contains  a report  of  the  results  of  analyses  of  seventy-nine 
soil  samples,  made  between  the  date  of  the  publication  of  the 
preceding  bulletin  and  July  1st,  1901,  and  such  general  con- 
clusions as  seemed  warranted  at  that  time.  Since  the  prepar- 
ation of  that  bulletin  there  have  been  analyzed  eighty-nine 
additional  soil  samples,  coming  in  the  main  from  different 
sections  or  different  localities  than  those  previously  analyzed. 
It  is  believed  that  the  one  hundred  eighty-eight  samples 
which  have  been  analyzed  fairly  represent  all  the  different 
localities  and  different  types  of  soil  which  are  to  be  found  in 
the  state,  and  that  the  soil  survey  may,  therefore,  be  consid- 
ered as  completed,  and  that  a final  report  of  its  results  may 
now  be  issued.  This  is  the  purpose  of  this  bulletin,  which 
contains  a report  of  the  analyses  which  have  been  made  in 


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Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


connection  with  the  soil  survey  since  July  1st,  1901,  and  a 
summary  of  the  results  of  the  whole  survey.  Most  of  the 
analytical  work  reported  in  this  bulletin  was  done  by  the 
author  himself.  About  fifteen  of  the  samples  were  analyzed 
by  Mr.  H.  R.  Watkins,  the  present  Assistant  Chemist  of  the 
Station,  to  whom  the  author's  indebtedness  is  hereby  ex- 
pressed. 


OBJECTS  AND  METHODS  OF  THE  SOIL 
SURVEY  WORK. 

Inasmuch  as  Bulletin  No.  13  is  now  out  of  print,  a few 
words  as  to  the  purpose  for  which  this  work  was  undertaken 
and  methods  of  carrying  it  on  may  properly  be  given  here. 
The  variations  in  the  topography,  nature  of  the  mother  rock, 
climatic  conditions,  and  other  influences  which  have  been 
active  agencies  in  the  formation  of  our  soils  are  so  great, 
that  we  have  within  the  boundaries  of  the  state  a very  large 
number  of  different  kinds  of  soil.  The  variations  in  the 
types  of  soils  of  this  state  are  probably  greater  than  in  any 
other  state  in  the  United  States.  The  object  of  the  soil  sur- 
vey of  the  state  has  been  to  accumulate  as  complete  informa- 
tion concerning  the  chemical  composition,  and  probable  fer- 
tility to  be  derived  thererfom,  of  all  the  varieties  of  soil  to 
be  found  in  the  state,  as  it  would  be  found  possible  to  do. 
The  possession  of  such  data  will  make  it  possible  for  us  to 
give  our  farmers,  orchard ists  and  investors,  much  valuable 
information  both  as  to  the  probable  extent  and  durability  of 
the  fertility  of  the  soil  in  the  different  sections  of  the  state, 
and  as  to  the  best  means  to  increase  the  fertility  of  those 
soils  which  are  not  now  capable  of  yielding  wholly  satisfact- 
ory crops.  It  is  believed  that  the  information  now  at  hand 
amply  repays  the  expense  and  effort  necessary  to  secure  it, 
and  that  it  will  become  increasingly  valuable  as  the  agricul- 
tural resources  are  developed  and  more  attention  is  given  to 
securing  increased  returns  from  the  acreages  under  cultiva- 
tion. 

In  carrying  out  this  survey,  it  has  not  been  possible  for 
this  Department  to  send  out  parties  to  study  the  soil  in  the 


Bulletin  No.  85 — Washington  Soils 


5 


different  counties  and  to  select  representative  samples  there- 
from. We  have  had  to  depend  to  a considerable  extent  upon 
samples  sent  in  to  us  by  interested  persons  throughout  the 
state.  Whenever  such  samples  as  were  sent  were  accom- 
panied by  a satisfactroy  description  of  the  land  from  which 
they  came,  and  were  representative  of  a type  of  soil  of  con- 
siderable extent,  complete  analyses  were  made  and  the  rec- 
ords of  the  results  preserved  as  a part  of  the  soil  survey 
work.  . A great  many  samples  have  been  received  which 
were  of  only  local  or  private  interest  to  the  person  sending 
them,  and  have  been  dealt  with  as  such  and  are  not  included 
in  this  soil  study.  A very  considerable  proportion  of  the 
samples  analyzed  in  this  survey  have  been  sent  in  at  the  re- 
quest of  this  department  and  some  have  been  secured  by  the 
chemists  themselves  during  visits  made  for  other  purposes 
to  the  localities  which  they  represent. 

In  order  that  the  terms  used  and  the  analytical  data  re- 
corded in  the  following  pages  maybe  more  easily  understood, 
a few  words  concerning  the  general  composition  of  soils  will 
be  necessary. 


ORIGIN  AND  COMPOSITION  OF  SOILS. 

All  soils  are  produced  by  the  disintegration,  or  mechan- 
ical breaking-down,  and  decomposition,  or  chemical  break- 
ing-down, of  rock.  This  breaking-down,  or  “weathering” 
as  it  is  termed,  is  caused  by  the  joint  action  of  air,  moisture, 
sudden  changes  of  temperature,  and  of  growing  or  decaying 
vegetation,  on  the  rocks  of  which  the  earth's  crust  is  com- 
posed. The  action  is  generally  slow,  but  is  continuous  and 
very  powerful.  When  it  has  been  going  on  long  enough  so 
that  the  rock  is  reduced  to  a rather  fine  powder,  and  this 
“rock  waste”  is  mixed  with  a certain  amount  of  decaying 
vegetable  matter,  “soil”  is  produced.  It  follows  that  the 
nature  of  the  soil  will  depend  largely  on  that  of  the  rocks 
from  which  it  originated.  But  the  nature  and  the  amount 
of  vegetable  matter  which  they  contain,  the  extent  to  which 
they  have  been  moved  about  and  intermixed  by  wind  and 


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Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


water,  etc.,  are  disturbing  factors  which  make  it  impossible 
to  always  definitely  associate  a soil  with  the  rock  which  it 
overlays.  A distinction  should  here  be  made  between  “soil” 
and  “sub-soil.”  The  latter  is  much  more  apt  to  be  of  the 
same  chemical  nature  as  the  original  mother  rock  of  that  lo- 
cality. In  sections  of  abundant  rainfall,  where  the  growth 
of  vegetation  is  considerable,  the  character  of  the  surface 
soil  is  much  modified  by  the  vegetable  remains,  and  there  is 
often  a sharp  line  of  demarcation  between  the  soil  and  the 
subsoil.  But  in  dry  regions  the  differences  between  the  soil 
of  different  depths  are  often  scarcely  perceptible. 

From  the  above  brief  discussion  it  will  be  apparent  that 
soil  consists  essentially  of  two  major  constituents,  namely 
mineral  matter,  or  “rock  waste,”  and  organic  matter,  or 
vegetable  matter  in  various  stages  of  decay. 

The  organic  matter  is  very  complex  in  its  nature,  and 
exists  in  every  stage  of  decay  from  the  woody  fibre  of  grow- 
ing plants  to  the  gases  which  are  the  result  of  the  complete 
decomposition  of  vegetable  matter.  In  the  analysis  of  soil  a 
distinction  is  made  between  “volatile  and  organic  matter,” 
which  comprises  all  the  material  which  may  be  driven  off  or 
burned  off  from  a soil  by  high  heat,  and  includes  combined 
water  and  certain  gases  as  well  as  the  purely  vegetable  mat- 
ter of  the  soil,  and  “humus,”  or  that  part  of  the  organic 
matter  which  is  in  certain  intermediate  stages  of  decay  and 
may  be  dissolved  out  of  the  soil  by  dilute  solutions  of  am- 
monia or  other  alkaline  liquids.  Humus  is  that  part  of  the 
organic  matter  which  is  in  the  proper  form  to  serve  as  a 
supply  of  plant  food.  It  is  of  very  great  value  in  soils,  be- 
cause it  not  only  sunplies  a very  necessary  element  of  plant 
food,  nitrogen,  but  has  also  the  power  to  attack  some  of  the 
inert  mineral  matter  of  the  soil  and  change  it  into  forms 
which  are  available  for  plant  food  purposes.  It  also  exerts 
very  beneficial  effects  upon  the  physical  properties  of  the 
soil  because  of  its  light,  bulky  form  and  its  dark  color,  prop- 
erties which  tend  to  increase  the  power  of  the  soil  to  absorb 
and  retain  heat  and  moisture,  and  to  make  it  much  more 
easily  tillable.  The  influences  which  change  organic  matter 


Bulletin  No.  85 — Washing  toil  Soils 


7 


to  humus  are  most  active  in  well  tilled  soils  and  it  will  be 
noticed  in  the  analyses  which  are  reported  in  this  bulletin 
that  a much  larger  proportion  of  the  total  organic  matter  of 
cultivated  soils  is  in  this  form  than  in  the  case  of  the  “vir- 
gin”, or  uncultivated  soils. 

NITROGEN  is  always  a constituent  of  the  vegetable 
matter  of  the  soil,  although  in  widely  varying  proportions. 
It  is  an  absolutely  essential  element  of  plant  food,  being 
largely  consumed  in  the  builidng  up  of  the  green  growing 
parts  of  the  plant,  i.  e.,  the  stems  and  leaves,  or  foliage.  A 
rank  growth  of  dark  green  foliage  indicates  an  abundance 
of  available  nitrogen  in  the  soil,  while  a slow  growth,  of  pale 
green  color,  if  other  conditions  are  suitable,  indicates  nitro- 
gen hunger.  None  of  the  original  rocks  of  the  earth’s  crust 
contain  nitrogen,  and  the  supply  in  the  soil  comes  wholly 
from  decayed  organic  matter. 

The  mineral  matter  of  the  soil  comprises  all  the  material 
derived  from  the  original  mother  rock,  and  exists  in  all  de- 
grees of  fineness  from  coarse  sand  or  gravel  down  to  the 
finest  clay  particles  so  small  as  to  be  scarcely  visible  even 
under  a powerful  microscope.  In  making  a chemical  analy- 
sis, the  sample  of  soil  is  first  sifted  through  a sieve  having 
meshes  0.5  millimeter,  or  1-50  of  an  inch  apart.  This  is 
done  because  it  is  supposed  that  mineral  particles  too  large 
in  size  to  pass  through  this  sieve  are  too  coarse  to  serve  as 
a supply  of  plant  food.  All  the  analyses  recorded  in  this 
bulletin  were  made  on  the  fine  earth  which  had  been  so 
sifted. 

The  mineral  matter  of  soils  ordinarily  contains  the  fol- 
lowing chemical  elements:  sodium,  potassium,  calcium, 
magnesium,  iron,  aluminium,  maganese,  sulphur,  silicon^ 
carbon,  phosphorus.  Of  these  the  first  seven  are  metallic 
elements,  while  sulphur,  silicon,  carbon  and  phosphorus  are 
non-metals.  In  addition  to  those  just  named,  small  quanti- 
ties of  other  elements  are  occasionally  found,  but  not  in  suffi- 
cient quantities  to  give  them  any  significance  in  this  discus- 
sion. These  elements  in  the  soil  are  always  united  together 
in  more  or  less  complex  compounds.  These  compounds  al- 


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Washintgon  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


most  invariably  contain  oxygen  and  are  made  up  of  metallic 
oxide  (or  combination  of  oxygen  w ith  a metallic  element) 
united  "with  a non-metallic  oxide  (or  combination  of  oxygen 
with  a non-metallic  element.)  Hence  it  is  customary  to  de- 
termine the  percenatge  of  the  oxide  of  each  element,  rather 
than  that  of  the  element  itself,  in  making  an  analysis  of  a 
sample  of  soil,  as  is  shown  in  the  reports  of  all  the  analyses 
which  have  been  made  in  this  laboratory.  For  this  reason 
the  names  of  these  oxides  rather  than  the  names'of  the  ele- 
ments themselves,  as  given  above,  are  used  in  the  following 
discussion  and  throughout  the  bulletin. 

In  making  an  analysis  such  as  has  been  employed  for 
this  work  the  soil  is  digested  with  strong  hydrochloric  acid 
(specific  gravity  1.115)  for  ten  hours  at  the  temperature  of 
boiling  water.  This  treatment  is  believed  to  dissolve  all  the 
mineral  matter  of  the  soil  which  is  in  such  form  that  it  may 
become  available  as  plant  food.  The  material  which  is  not 
dissolved  under  these  conditions  is  undecomposed  rock  which 
has  no  value  whatever  as  plant  food.  This  is  reported  in  the 
tables  below  as  insoluble  silica,  although  it  invariably  con- 
tains insoluble  rock  substance  other  than  pure  silica  or 
quartz.  The  hydrated  silica  represents  that  part  of  the  sil- 
ica not  dissolved  by  the  acid  which  is  soluble  in  a strong  so- 
lution of  sodium  carbonate,  and  was  originally  present  in  the 
soil  as  clay  substance,  the  latter  being  attacked  by  the  acid 
and  the  metals  in  combination  with  it  dissolved  out.  It  is 
of  value,  therefore,  as  indicating  the  proportion  of  the  min- 
eral elements  which  are  in  combination  as  clay.  The  soluble 
silica  is  that  part  of  the  silica  which  dissolves  in  the  acid 
and  probably  represents  the  amount  of  silicates  in  the  soil 
which  might,  under  proper  conditions,  be  taken  into  plant 
roots  has  such.  SILICA  is  of  no  value  as  plant  food.  Small 
amounts  of  it  are  found  in  the  ash  of  plants,  showing  that 
it  is  taken  up  from  the  soil  into  plants,  but  it  performs  no 
known  function  in  the  plant  tissue.  The  physical  properties 
of  soils  are  greatly  affected  by  the  amount  of  silica  (true 
sand,  or  quartz)  or  clay  (silicate  of  alumina)  which  it  con- 
tains. Friability,  porosity,  and  conductivity  for  heat  are 


Bulletin  No.  85 — Washington  Soils 


9 


properties  of  sand,  while  a certain'  amount  of  clay  increases 
the  water-holding  capacity  and  capilarity  of  the  soil. 

IRON  OXIDE,  or  iron  rust,  either  as  such  or  combined 
with  water  as  ferric  hydroxide,  is  present  in  all  soils  in  con- 
siderable amounts,  and  often  gives  a red  color  to  them,  al- 
though if  more  organic  matter  is  present  the  color  due  to 
iron  may  be  obscured  by  the  brown  or  black  color  of  the 
humus.  Plants  require  a small  amount  of  iron  as  plant  food, 
but  it  is  always  present  ir  soils  in  far  greater  abundance 
than  is  ever  needed  by  crops. 

ALUMINA  occurs  chiefly  in  the  form  of  clay  (alumi- 
nium silicate).  The  importance  of  clay  in  a soil  has  already 
been  pointed  out.  Alumina  is  not  necessary  to  plant  growth 
and  so  does  not  serve  as  plant  food. 

LIME  is  one  of  the  most  important  constituents  in  the 
soil.  Chemically,  it  serves  to  neutralize  the  organic  acids 
produced  by  the  decay  of  vegetable  matter,  aids  the  rapid 
transformation  of  vegetable  matter  into*humus  and  liberates 
other  elements  of  plant  food  from  insoluble  forms,  thereby 
rendering  them  available  for  plant  use.  Physically,  it  im- 
proves the  soil  by  rendering  the  clay  more  flocculent,  thus 
increasing  its  friability  and  water-holding  capacity,  and  by 
cementing  sand  grains  in  sandy  soils,  thereby  increasing  the 
water-holding  capacity  and  capillary  of  the  soil.  Lime  is 
also  required  by  plants  in  building  up  cell-tissue,  but  only 
in  very  small  amounts,  hence  it  is  usually  abundant  in  the 
soil  as  far  as  its  use  as  plant  food  is  concerned. 

MAGNESIA  occurs  in  the  soil  associated  with  lime,  and 
is  somewhat  similar  in  its  chemical  properties  to  it.  But  it 
does  not  exert  the  same  beneficial  effect  on  the  soil  as  does 
the  lime.  Magnesia  is  used  by  plants,  especially  by  cereals, 
being  in  some  way  connected  with  seed-formation.  It  is  us- 
ually present  in  soils  in  abundance  for  plant  uses. 

POTASH  is  present  in  soils  as  a result  of  the  decompo- 
sition of  rocks  of  the  feldspar  type,  such  as  orthoclase,  gran- 
ite and  some  forms  of  mica.  It  is  usually  found  more  or 
less  loosely  combined  with  the  clay  which  results  from  the 
decomposition  of  these  rocks.  It  is  an  essential  element  of 


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Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


plant  food,  being  connected  with  the  building  up  of  the  car- 
bohydrates (starches,  sugars,  etc.)  It  is,  therefore,  needed 
in  considerable  amounts  by  all  crops,  especially  fruits  and 
vegetables. 

SODA  is  very  similar  to  potash  in  its  origin,  occurence 
in  the  soil,  and  chemical  properties.  It  cannot, ' however, 
perform  the  functions  of  potash  in  plants,  and  is  of  no  value 
as  plant  food.  When  present  in  soils  in  forms  which  are 
soluble  in  water  it  is  one  of  the  commoner  kinds  of  “alkali” 
and  if  in  sufficient  quantity  is  very  injurious  to  plants. 

PHOSPHORIC  ACID  is  the  form  in  which  the  element 
phosphorus  usually  occurs  in  soils.  It  never  occurs  as 
free  acid  but  combined  with  iron,  lime,  or  some  other  metal, 
phosphate  of  lime  being  the  most  common  form.  It  is  usually 
present  in  smaller  amounts  than  any  other  of  the  substances 
mentioned  above.  It  is  a very  essential  element  of  plant 
food,  being  required  for  the  building  up  of  proteid  matter 
in  plants.  This  proteid  matter  is  usually  stored  up  largely 
in  the  seeds  and  forms  an  important  constituent  of  them. 
Hence,  phosphoric  acid  is  directly  connected  with  seed-pro- 
duction and  is  required  in  considerable  amount  by  all  crops, 
especially  by  the  cereals.  Because  of  the  small  amounts 
which  are  ordinarily  present,  soils  are  often  deficient  in 
phosphoric  acid  and  are,  therefore,  benefitted  by  the  appli- 
cation of  phosphate  fertilizers. 

SULPHURIC  ACID  bears  the  same  relation  to  the  ele- 
ment sulphur  that  phosphoric  acid  does  to  phosphorus,  and 
what  has  been  said  about  the  latter  applies  equally  as  well  to 
sulphuric  acid.  It  is  present  in  soils  in  much  smaller  quan- 
tities, however,  but  is  required  in  smaller  amounts  by  plants. 
Hence,  it  is  supposed  to  be  always  present  in  sufficient 
amounts  to  supply  plant  needs,  although  the  most  recent  in- 
vestigations seem  to  show  that  the  use  of  sulphates  as  fer- 
tilizers is  of  more  importance  than  has  been  supposed. 

CARBON  DIOXIDE,  or  carbonic  acid  gas,  is  present  in 
soils  both  as  the  free  gas  and  combined  with  lime  and  other 
metals,  as  carbonate  of  lime,  etc.  The  gaseous  form  is  not 
included  in  the  ordinary  analysis  of  the  solid  matter  of  soils. 


Bulletin  No.  85 — Washington  Soils 


1 


The  combined  carbonic  acid  is  of  importance  as  a measure 
of  the  amount  of  carbonate  of  lime  present,  since  it  is  in  this 
form  which  lime  exerts  its  most  beneficial  effects. 

From  the  above  discussion  it  will  be  seen  that  of  all  the 
elements  described,  four  alone  are  necessary  to  be  considered 
in  connection  with  problems  of  supply  of  plant  food,  or  fer- 
tility questions.  The  others  are  either  non-essential  to  plant 
growth,  or  are  always  present  in  soils  in  abundance.  The 
four  constituents,  lime,  potash,  phosphoric  acid,  and  nitro- 
gen, which  are  essential  to  plant  growth  and  are  likely  to  be 
insufficient  in  quantity  in  the  soil  are  known  as  the  “criti- 
cal elements  of  fertility.’ ’ 

A study  of  the  analytical  tables  recorded  in  this  and  the 
preceding  soil  bulletins  shows  exceedingly  wide  variations 
in  the  percentages  of  these  different  elements  in  our  soils. 
As  a means  of  comparison  with  these,  the  following  state- 
ment of  the  average  composition  of  two  hundred  typical 
fertile  soils,  as  given  by  Professor  Snyder,  of  the  Minnesota 
Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  in  his  book  on  “Soils  and 
Fertilizers,”  is  presented: 


Insoluble  matter  - 

79.95 

per 

cent 

Potash 

0.29 

per 

cent 

Soda  - 

0.25 

per 

cent 

Lime 

2.16 

per 

cent 

Magnesia 

0.55 

per 

cent 

Iron  Oxide 

2.68 

per 

cent 

Alumina 

5.20 

per 

cent 

Phosphoric  anhydride  0.24 

per 

cent 

Sulphuric 

0.03 

per 

cent 

Carbonic 

1.12 

per 

cent 

Volatile  Matter 

7.00 

per 

cent 

Total 

99.7 

per 

cent 

Humus 

3.35 

per 

cent 

Nitrogen 

0.29 

per 

cent 

It  appears  that  an  average  fertile  soil  of  Washington  is 
richer  in  potash,  about  the  same  in  phosphoric  acid,  and 


12 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


poorer  in  carbonate  of  lime,  humus  and  nitrogen,  than  the 
average  of  those  reported  by  Prof.  Snyder,  which  seem  to 
have  come  chiefly  from  the  prairies  of  the  Upper  Mississippi 
Valley. 


EELATION  OF  SOIL  COMPOSITION  TO  FERTILITY. 

The  methods  of  analysis  employed  in  his  work  show  the 
total  amount  of  plant  food  present  in  the  soils  in  forms  which 
are  dissolved  by  the  strong  acid  employed.  They  do  not  at 
all  show  how  much  of  this  material  is  in  available  forms  for 
plant  uses.  Unfortunately,  no  methods  have  yet  been  per- 
fected which  will  show,  with  sufficient  accuracy  to  make 
them  even  fairly  conclusive,  how  much  available  plant  food 
of  the  various  kinds  is  present  in  a soil  at  any  given  time. 
The  best  that  can  yet  be  done,  therefore,  is  a determination 
of  the  total  acid-soluble  plant  food.  Experience  has  shown, 
however,  that  it  is  possible  to  draw  certain  fairly  definite 
conclusions  as  to  the  fertility  or  fertilizer  needs  of  a soil 
from  the  results  of  such  an  analysis.  In  this  connection, 
Professor  Hilgard,  the  celebrated  authority  on  soils  in  this 
country,  says:  “As  between  soils  of  similar  character  and 

origin,  the  production  and  durability  are  sensibly  propor- 
tioned to  the  plant  food  percentages  when  the  latter  fall  be- 
low a certain  limit.”  With  regard  to  the  percentages  of  each 
of  the  critical  elements  of  fertility,  lime,  potash,  phosphoric 
acid,  and  nitrogen,  which  are  necessary  for  satisfactory 
plant  growth,  the  most  complete  standards  which  have  been 
proposed  are  those  of  Professor  Maerker,  of  the  Halle  Ex- 
periment Station,  in  Germany.  These  are  given  in  Prof. 
Hilgard’s  new  book  on  “Soils,”  page  369,  as  follows: 


Bulletin  No.  85 — Washingto?i  Soils 


15 


Practical  Ratings  of  Soils  by  Plant-Food  Percentages 
According  to  Prof.  Kaerker,  Halle  Sta.,  Germany. 


Grade  of 
Soil 

Potash 

Phosphoric  Lime  Total 

Acid  Clay  Soil  Sandv  Soil  Nitrogen 

Poor 

Below  .05 

Below  .05 

Below  .10  Below  .05 

Below  .05 

Medium 

•05—15 

.05— .10 

.10-. 25  .05-.  10 

.05— .10 

Normal 

•15— -25 

.10— .15 

.25-.50  .10-.20 

.10— .15 

Good 

.25— .40 

•15—25 

.50-1.00  .20-.  30 

•15— -25 

Rich 

Above  .40 

Above  .25 

Ab’vei.oo  Abovev30 

Above  .25 

These  estimates  are  in  very  close  agreement  with 
nearly  all  of  those  which  have  been  suggested  by  other 
soil  chemists,  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  although  different 
methods  of  analysis  are  used  by  men  in  different  countries. 
In  fact,  the  writer  believes  that  these  standards  may  be 
fairly  considered  as  proper  ones  for  soils  throughout  the 
humid  regions  of  the  temperate  zone.  In  tropical  regions 
percentages  required  for  fertility  have  been  shown  to  be 
much  less  than  these,  and  in  semi-arid  districts,  typical  fer- 
tile soils  invariably  show  higher  percentages  of  the  mineral 
ingredients  of  the  soil.  But  for  general  purposes,  the  stand- 
ards of  Prof.  Maerker  may  be  commonly  applied,  and  it  is 
suggested  that  they  be  kept  carefully  in  mind  in  the  consid- 
eration of  the  analyses  reported  in  this,  and  the  other  bul- 
letins in  this  series. 


RESULTS  OF  ANALYSES  OF  SOILS. 

The  results  of  the  analyses  of  the  samples  of  soils  which 
have  been  made  in  connection  with  this  survey,  since  those 
reported  in  Bulletin  55  were  completed,  follow.  The  sam- 
ples are  arranged  by  counties,  and  following  each  analytical 
table,  a brief  description  of  each  sample  and  discussion  of 
the  results  of  the  analysis  of  it  are  given. 


M 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


SPOKANE  COUNTY. 


I 

No.  564 

No.  641 

No.  642 

No.  643 

No.  1030 

Insoluble  Silica 

I ( 

84.380 

79  .432 

65.480 

70.900 

Hydrated  Silica 

\ 60 .040 

2.920 

7.776 

11.626 

9.540 

Soluble  silica 

l 

0.108 

0.040 

0.580 

0-122 

Potash  (K,0) 

0.829 

0 438 

0.304 

0.356 

0.389 

Soda  (NaoO) 

0.912 

0.356 

0.250 

. 0.550 

0.230 

time  (CaO) 

7 .768 

0.320 

0.334 

0.524 

0.618 

Magnesia  (MgO) 

3.891 

0.142 

trace 

0.398 

0.295 

Manganese  Dioxide  (Mn._>0).... 

none 

none 

none 

none 

none 

Iron  Oxide  (Fe«03) 

4.123 

3.100 

3.430 

4.298 

3.141 

Alumina  (ALO  ;) 

6.928 

5.335 

6.655 

10.826 

6.582 

Phosphorus  Pentoxide  (P2O5)  . 

0.249 

0.108 

0.157 

0.300 

0.185 

Sulphur  Trioxide  (S03)  

trace 

none 

0 073 

0.061 

0.100 

Carbon  Dioxide  (COo) 

7.187 

none 

none 

trace 

Volatile  and  Organic  matter... 

• 

3 724 

2.595 

1.822 

5.448 

7.894 

Total 

100  .151 

99.802 

100.273 

100  484 

99.996 

Humus 

1 .000 

0.6C0 

0.520 

1.190 

3.050 

Total  Nitrogen 

0.062 

0-027 

0.022 

0.061 

0.143 

Moisture  in  Air-Dry  Soil 

2.880 

0.606 

0.787 

1.910 

2.040 

No.  564  was  sent  in  by  Mr.  B.  0.  Wing,  of  Spokane.  It 
was  taken  from  the  upper  part  of  the  Little  Spokane  valley, 
representing  an  area  which  it  was  proposed  to  bring  under 
irrigation.  Mr.  Wing  writes  that  the  soil  shows  “alkali” 
spots.  The  analysis  shows  the  soil  to  be  marked  calcareous 
in  nature,  containing  over  18  per  cent  of  carbonates  of  lime 
and  magnesia.  The  proportion  of  potash  and  soda  is  also 
very  high— indicating  the  possibility  of  considerable  amounts 
of  alkali  in  the  soil.  Under  proper  irrigation,  these  injurious 
alkali  salts  might  be  successfully  removed,  however,  and  the 
soil  is  otherwise  well  stocked  with  plant  food.  It  is  some- 
what low  in  humus  and  nitrogen,  but  this  is  quite  character- 
istic of  irrigated  soils,  and  may  easily  be  remedied  by  plow- 
ing under  leguminous  crops. 

Nos.  641,  642  and  643  were  sent  in  by  Mr.  Guy  Stam- 
baugh,  of  Elk.  They  were  taken  from  a farm  lying  upon 
the  divide  east  of  the  Little  Spokane  river,  on  Sec.  7-29-44 
E.  Nos.  641  and  624  are  stiff  clay  loams  lying  at  the  top  of 
the  divide,  while  No.  643  lies  lower  down  on  the  east  slope. 
The  upper  soils  are  very  deficient  in  humus  and  nitrogen, 
the  lower  soil  being  better  supplied  but  still  not  very  rich  in 
these  constituents. 


Bulletin  No.  85 — Washmglon  Soils 


15 


No.  1030  was  sent  in  by  Mr.  J.  A.  Yeomans,  of  Spokane, 
who  writes  that  the  sample  was  taken  from  Sec.  25-26-43  E. ; 
that  it  represents  a very  considerable  area  of  soil  in  the  dis- 
trict known  as  “Five  Mile  Prairie,,,  and  that  winter  apples 
growing  on  this  soil  do  not  “color  up”  well,  and  asks  for  an 
explanation  of  the  latter  difficulty.  The  analysis  shows  the 
soil  to  be  well  supplied  with  all  the  essential  elements  of 
plant  food;  potash  and  iron,  the  two  elementts  which  are 
sometimes  supposed  to  be  associated  with  the  production  of 
highly  colored  fruit,  being  present  in  ample  amounts.  The 
difficulty  which  Mr.  Yeomans  mentions  is,  therefore,  prob- 
ably due  to  climatic  or  other  conditions,  rather  than  to  any 
lack  of  fertility  in  the  soil. 


Ci  ^ CT>  rf  OJ  rH  O <3$  OC  »-l  I 

avTroaoO'S=v<50SSC5co  I 

o«Oto  (j®i>o»o)Tr 

,_•  ®<x>  dio’oo0'*’^ 

° eo  ■M 


>* 

H 

£ 

£ 

O 

o 

C/2 

£ 

w 

> 

&q 

H 

C/2 


No.  673 

o tcotto  u i-i  | 

O K00  31H  n^tiCO)  c -H 

mo^io  jCooh  g:  io 

O o’  © © o'  r;  c4  C«5  O*  c ci 

© I 

99.939 

0.920 
! 0.030 

| 2.249 

No.  656  | 

86.870 

0.320 

0.290 

0.590 

0.469 

none 

3.380 

4.521 

0.089 

none 

3.840 

100.369 

1.410 

0.040 

0.759 

No.  655 

O <N  SO  O 00  V O © t»  *>  | 

O ■— (lt»f  rl  H o 

i"  S«n«  g:  © 

<n  dddr!*3cd^d  s »> 

100.369 

OQO(N 

lsf8 

<N®’° 

No.  436 

70  680 
11 .672 
0.074 
0.229 
0.263 
0.494 
0.602 
none 
2.976 
6.471 
0.343 
none 

6.163 

99.997 

1.970 

0.115 

3.057 

No.  435 

7C.624 

12.758 

0.093 

0.193 

0.283 

0.506 

0.374 

none 

2.563 

6.362 

0.400 

none 

5.736 

99.894 

1.930 

0.106 

2.871 

No.  342 

OO-^OlNOOin  ajOOt^O'Tf'  DO". 
0>0(D®NiOt»  OOiOOOCO 
(onoh^mh  odco-^oQo  go 
|cs  i>  o’  o’  dodi;  xo  o'  o'  2 tt 

i1' 

100.173 

1.590 

0.044 

2.420 

6 

£ 

87.718 

4.242 

0.040 

0.074 

0.290 

0.400 

0.234 

none 

1.246 

2.361 

0.083 

none 

trace 

3.420 

100  108 

I 

1 WO 

No.  78 

79.420 

8.630 

0.034 

0.225 

0.338 

0.741 

0.239 

none 

2.142 

5.175 

0.048 

none 

3.445 

100.437 

0.465 
0.034 
0 847 

No.  77 

76.686 

9.706 

0.026 

0.492 

0.033 

0.741 

0.150 

none 

2.384 

5.939 

0.122 

none 

4.201 

ii 

Is 

!005H 
IC5-TH  ! 

ooocc 

OOrH 

Insoluble  Silicia 
Hydrated 
Soluble  " 

Potash  (K20) 

Soda  (NaoO) 

Lime  (CaO) 

Magnesia  (MgO) 

Manganese  Dioxide  (MnOo) 
Iron  Oxide  (Fe203) 

Alumina  (A1203) 

Phos.  Pentoxide  (P205) 
Sulphur  Trioxide(S03) 
Carbon  Dioxide  (COo) 

Vol.  & Organic  Matter 

Humus 

Total  Nitrogen 
Water  in  Air-dry  Soil 

Bulletin  No.  85 — Washington  Soils 


17 


STEVENS  COUNTY. 

Nos.  77  and  78  are  samples  of  surface  soil  and  subsoil 
respectively,  sent  in  by  Mr.  P.  E.  Peterson,  of  Camden.  Mr. 
Peterson  writes:  “This  soil  is  taken  where  nothing  is  grow- 
ing, except  trees  all  having  pitch,  except  cedar.  The  ground 
has  never  been  plowed  and  never  had  any  manure,  but  fire 
has  run  over  it  several  times.  There  is  at  present  a thin 
covering  of  pine,  fir,  balsam  fir  and  tamarack  needles.  There 
is  no  lime,  minerals,  or  ore  in  this  locality  so  far  as  I know. 
The  land  where  this  soil  was  taken  is  low  and  level  and  is 
apparently  different  from  the  high  land  soil.  I plowed  two 
acres  of  this  land  this  spring  and  sowed  it  to  sand  vetch, 
but  it  did  not  grow  four  inches  high,  while  vetches  in  my 
garden  grew  three  feet  high.  The  garden  has  had  manure. 
My  neighbors  inform  me  that  crops  of  any  kind  do  not  do 
well  on  this  soil  the  first  year  after  it  is  broke  up,  owing 
to  there  being  too  much  turpentine,  or  pitch  in  the  ground.” 
The  analyses  show  the  soil  to  be  well  supplied  with  potash, 
lime  and  phosphoric  acid,  but  very  low  in  humus  and  nitro- 
gen. It  is  probable  that  the  difficulty  in  getting  crops  to 
grow  on  new  land  of  this  kind  is  due  to  a lack  of  available 
nitrogen.  This  is  further  shown  in  the  beneficial  effect  of 
manure  on  the  soil.  The  plowing  under  of  some  vegetable 
or  animal  matter  to  supply  humus  and  nitrogen  is  the  ob- 
vious remedy. 

No.  161  is  not  properly  a soil,  but  a sample  of  the  white 
ashy  subsoil  found  in  layers  underlying  the  surface  soil  in 
many  places  in  Eastern  Washington.  It  was  sent  in  by  Mr. 
Mihills,  of  Spokane,  who  writes  that  it  was  taken  from  his 
ranch  in  Spirit  Valley,  in  the  southeastern  part  of  Stevens 
County.  He  states  that  this  subsoil  is  covered  with  a rich, 
black  loam  from  six  to  twenty-four  inches  in  depth  and  asks 
if  this  subsoil  is  adapted  to  the  growing  of  grass  crops,  or  if 
it  can  be  improved  by  manure  or  other  fertilizers.  Both  the 
microscopic  examination  and  the  chemical  analysis  of  this 
material  show  it  to  be  a highly  siliceous  volcanic  ash,  of  little 
value  for  plant  food  purposes.  It  could  not  possess  much 
value  to  crops  either  chemically  or  physically,  and  the  growth 


i8 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


of  crops  will  depend  wholly  upon  the  nature  of  the  overlying 
soil. 

Samples  Nos.  342,  435,  436,  655  and  673  all  represent 
soils  from  the  Pend  d’Oreille  valley  taken  at  different  locali- 
ties along  its  course  through  Stevens  Co. 

No.  342  was  sent  in  by  Mr.  W.  A.  Sloan,  of  Locke.  It 
was  taken  from  the  S.E.  quarter  of  Sec.  14-34-43  E.  Mr.  Locke 
writes:  “The  land  here  lies  in  benches  rising  one  above  the 
other  back  from  the  Pend  d’Oreille  river.  This  place  is 
about  five  hundred  feet  above  the  river  and  two  and  one-half 
miles  from  it.  This  soil  seems  very  peculiar  in  that  it  re- 
tains moisture  very  tenaciously,  as  during  the  past  summer 
when  it  has  been  so  dry  (three  months  without  rain)  if  one 
dug  down  three  or  four  inches  the  soil  felt  quite  moist.  When 
dry  it  is  like  powder,  and  makes  a very  deep  dust,  and  when 
moist  it  packs  down  quite  hard  yet  is  very  easily  tilled. 
There  have  been  at  least  three  forest  fires  burned  over  this 
ground.  The  last  one,  last  summer,  left  a thick  coating  of 
ashes  on  the  ground.  The  land  has  never  been  under  culti- 
vation.’ ’ The  analysis  shows  the  soil  to  be  well  stocked  with 
phosphoric  acid,  fairly  well  supplied  with  potash,  lime  and 
humus,  but  low  in  nitrogen.  Mr.  Locke’s  proposal  to  plow 
under  a clover  crop  would  be  ideal  treatment  for  this  type 
of  soil. 

Nos.  435  and  436  were  sent  in  by  Mr.  Chas.  M.  TaL 
madge,  of  Newport,  who  describes  them  as  follows:  “lam 
sending  you  two  samples  of  soil  from  a piece  of  bench  land 
south  of  Newport.  Sample  No.  l,(No.  435),  is  taken  from  a 
piece  which  has  a heavy  growth  of  fir,  tamarack,  pine  and 
alder.  There  is  very  heavy  growth  of  underbrush  and  vines. 
The  soil  is  always  moist,  for  the  reason  that  water  may  be 
had  at  almost  any  point  on  it  at  a depth  of  from  three  to 
four  feet.  Sample  No.  2,  (No.  436,)  is  from  adjoining  land 
that  lies  about  ten  to  fifteen  feet  higher  and  has  a lighter 
growth  of  timber,  mostly  fir  and  pine.  I would  like  very 
much  to  have  the  soil  analyzed  in  hopes  that  some  way  may 
be  discovered  of  taming  the  soil  for  a first  crop.  Garden 
peas  sowed  on  this  soil  started  out  splendidly,  but  after  they 


Bulletin  No.  85 — Washington  Soils 


9 


had  attained  a height  of  about  six  inches  they  stopped  grow- 
ing and  have  since  truned  yellow.  Other  vegetables  are  act- 
ing the  same  way.  Potatoes,  however,  show  up  much  better 
and  will  undoubtedly  return  a half  crop.”  The  most  notice- 
able difficulty  with  these  soils  is  the  proportion  of  coarse 
sand,  gravel,  etc.,  which  they  contain,  No.  435  showing 26.4 
per  cent  and  No.  436  62.6  per  cent  of  material  of  this  kind 
which  is  too  coarse  to  serve  for  plant  food  purposes.  The 
fine  earth  of  the  soil,  in  each  case,  shows  unusually  high 
percentages  of  phosphoric  acid,  and  a fair  supply  of  potash, 
nitrogen  and  humus.  The  amount  of  lime  is  rather  low,  and 
it  is  probable  that  this,  together  with  the  poor  physical  con- 
dition of  the  soil,  is  responsible  for  the  lack  of  available 
plant  food  as  shown  by  the  poor  growth  of  plants  on  these 
soils. 

Nos.  655  and  656  are  soil  and  subsoil  from  the  Pend  d- 
’Oreille  at  Usk,  sent  in  by  Mr.  Henry  Bauer.  Unfortunately, 
the  correspondence  concerning  these  samples  has  been  mis- 
laid. 

No.  673  was  sent  in  by  Mr.  R.  X.  Davis,  also  of  Usk, 
who  states  that  it  represents  a somewhat  different  type  of 
soil  from  that  owned  by  Mr.  Bauer.  The  chief  difference  in 
the  analyses  of  these  two  soils  is  in  their  humus  and  nitro- 
gen content.  The  inorganic  or  mineral  plant  foods,  potash, 
lime  and  phosphoric  acid  are  not  greatly  different  in  the  two 
cases,  and  are  present  in  fairly  liberal  amounts.  The  supply 
of  nitrogen  in  No.  673  is  very  low  -and  the  soil  is  probably 
deficient  in  available  nitrogen. 

No.  1103  was  sent  in  by  Mr.  S.  R.  Taylor,  from  Rock- 
cut,  in  the  extreme  northwest  corner  of  the  county.  Mr. 
Taylor  writes:  ”1  am  sending  you  a sample  of  some  soil 
over  which  I have  been  greatly  baffled.  I have  tried  to  raise 
grain  upon  it,  grain  of  different  kinds,  but  to  no  purpose. 
The  grain  apparently  sprouts  quickly  after  first  sown,  and 
shoots  up  green  and  rank,  but  presently  it  turns  yellow  and 
then  beginsjx)  burn  up  as  if  a scorching  sun  had  blasted  it, 
until  it  finally  dies  outright.  Whether  the  weather  is  wet  or 
dry  makes  no  material  difference  with  it.”  The  analysis 


20 


Washington  Agt  {cultural  Experiment  Station 


shows  that  the  material  is  not  true  soil,  but  an  impure  car- 
bonate of  lime,  or  marl  mixed  with  a little  soil.  It  contains 
about  66  per  cent  of  carbonate  of  lime.  The  difficulty  of 
producing  crop  is  easily  explained  by  this  fact.  It  would  be 
almost  impossible  for  any  considerable  amount  of  plant  food 
to  remain  in  available  form  in  such  a mixture  as  this  any 
great  length  of  time. 


FERRY,  OKANOGAN  AND  CHELAN  COUNTIES 


< 

a 

w 

u 

No.  1886 

i»oooo  o 

Tf  Oi  rH  t©  C4  00  iO  gONNO  gO 

GO  rH  © O © © O ri  d t>  © © 2 TP 
I>  **  * 

99.371 

1.830 

.077 

2.232 

o 

QO 

00 

6 

£ 

(N  CO  O 00  W T*  50  0>  © O O <D  a;  © 
O ^ CO  lO  €N  rH  g |>  rH  g g © 

rg ei © o’ d do  q tp d o q 2 <m* 

100.176 

1.942 

.061 

1.650 

No.  576 

63.600 

12.822 

0.319 

1.144 

0.341 

1.365 
0.897 
trace 

5.365 
6.903 
0.122 
0.029 
none 
7.086 

I CO 
© 
d 

1 

2.860 

0.215 

1.870 

No.  158 

82.340 

3.988 

0.260 

0.118 

0.435 

0.379 

0.301 

none 

2.451 

4.881 

0.078 

trace 

none 

5.440 

1 

CO 

T 

1 0 

r 

1.645 

0.087 

2.920 

OKANOGAN 

No.  790 

82.884 
6.036 
0.113 
0.335 
0.449 
0.944 
0.319 
none 
2.852 
| 2.841 

0.170 
0.072 
none 
2 282 

d 

1 

1.440 

0.085 

0.890 

No.  789 

tt  r-  -f  <n  ao  e*  v <e  ic  m v i 

OOHO®0)<OfflrOffl'>flNr!0 
Tf<  Tj<  r-i  C^l  50  tO  i-l  g tO  CO  »-<  O g TJ> 

w o’  o'  6 a o'  o ci  « d o a ^ 

SOCM  H W 1 

100.135 

1.650 

0.062 

0.908 

FERRY 

No.  1873 

N^OTfOCKO^NOH^ijiO  i 
ooojcomcdh 

^ owwnw  g oo oq 3 © g to 
wp*doddd  gw’ddd  poo  i 

i 

tP 

cc 

00 

3 

6.671 

.220 

3.770 

No.  1872 

» ^ O CO  OI  » ^ g Tf  1©  c4  O g l> 

t;io’6o'6dd  gMwo  n °° 

1 

100.666 

7.099 

0.262 

3.388 

No.  446 

l ! Am 
10.492 
0.204 
0.264 
0,235 
0.581 
0.548 
none 
2.811 
4.440 
0.124 
none 
trace 
3.290 

100.033 

® ® 00 

doe 

( 

< 

2 

< 

< 

c 

iiiauiuu.c  oiiii.a 

Hydrated  Silica 

Soluble  Silica 

Potash  (KaO) 

Soda  (NaoO) 

Dime  (CaO) 

Magnesia  (MgO) 

Manganese  Dioxide  (Mn20).... 

Iron  Oxide  (Fe.>Os) T 

Alumina  (AI0O3) 

Phosphorus  Pentoxide(P2C>5) . . 

Sulphur  Trioxide  (S03)  

Carbon  Dioxide  (C02) 

Volatile  and  Organic  matter... 

Total 

Humus 

Total  Nitrogen 

Moisture  in  Air-Dry  Soil 

22 


Washington  Agricultw  al  Experiment  Station 


FERRY  COUNTY. 

No.  446  was  sent  in  by  Mr.  J.  J.  Charlton,  of  Kettle 
Falls.  It  was  taken  from  the  northwest  quarter  of  Sec.  9- 
35-37  E.  The  soil  is  a very  coarse  gravelly  upland  loam,  the 
sample  containing  63.5  per  cent  of  coarse  sand,  gravel,  etc., 
and  only  36.5  per  cent  of  earth  fine  enough  to  serve  as  plant 
food.  Mr.  Charlton  writes  concerning  the  soil:  “I  have 
made  three  attempts  to  raise  alfalfa,  the  third  time  inoculat- 
ing the  seed,  but  it  is  not  yet  satisfactory.  After  the  pres- 
ent year  I will  have  plenty  of  water  for  irrigation.”  The 
analysis  shows  the  fine  earth  of  the  soil  to  be  well  supplied 
with  potash,  lime  and  phosphoric  acid,  but  quite  poor  in 
humus  and  nitrogen.  Taking  into  account  the  fact  that  the 
fine  earth  constitutes  only  about  one-third  of  the  soil,  and 
that  the  plant  food  in  the  soil  is  thus  greatly  thinned  out  by 
the  large  amounts  of  gravel,  etc.,  it  is  probable  that  their  is 
a deficiency  in  available  plant  food  of  all  kinds.  Soil  of  this 
kind  would  have  a poor  water-hclding  capacity,  and  it  may 
be  that  the  lack  of  fertility  is  due  to  its  inability  to  hold 
enough  water  for  the  plant  needs. 

Nos.  1872  and  1873  were  brought  to  the  laboratory  by 
Mr.  H.  C.  Wilcox,  of  Pullman,  but  were  taken  at  his  request 
from  districts  in  Ferry  County.  No.  1872  was  taken  from  an 
open  bunch  grass  prairie  three  miles  south  of  Malo.  It  came 
from  unbroken  sod  land.  It  was  a fine  brown  loam  soil,  with 
an  occasiqnal  large  pebble  or  stone,  but  with  very  little 
coarse  sand  and  gravel.  No.  1873  was  taken  from  a cleared 
pine  forest  near  Republic.  This  land  has  been  under  cultiva- 
tion for  a few  years.  The  soT  is  a black,  clay  loam,  contain- 
ing many  large  pebbles  from  the  size  of  a pea  to  that  of  a 
hens  egg,  but  no  sand  or  fine  gravel.  The  analyses  show 
both  of  these  soils  to  be  very  rich  in  all  the  essential  ele- 
ments of  plant  food.  With  thorough  cultivation,  they  should 
prove  of  very  high  fertility  for  a long  time  to  come. 


Bulletin  No.  85 — Washington  Soils 


23 


OKANOGAN  COUNTY. 

The  two  samples  of  soil  from  the  Okanogan  Valley  were 
taken  from  land  owned  by  the  State  College.  They  were  se- 
cured at  the  request  of  the  writer  by  Mr.  Geo.  A.  Davis,  of 
Ophir.  No.  789  was  labelled  by  him  as  “Okanogan  Valley 
soil  which  has  never  been  broken  up  or  cultivated.  Best 
alfalfa  and  fruit  land  in  the  valley.”  No.  790  was  marked 
“Soil  from  the  State  College  Flat.  Has  been  cultivated  two 
years.  Last  year  produced  thirty  bushels  of  wheat  per  acre, 
without  irrigation.”  No.  789  was  a coarse  sandy  alluvial 
drift,  containing  46  per  cent  of  coarse  sand,  etc.,  and  64  per 
cent  of  fine  earth.  No.  790  was  a very  fine  silt  of  the  most 
uniform  texture  and  the  finest  physical  condition  of  any  sam- 
ple of  soil  which  has  ever  been  received  at  this  laboratory. 
The  two  soils  are  both  well  stocked  with  nlantfood,  although 
the  proportion  of  nitrogen  in  the  lower  sandy  soil  is  rather 
low  for  a grain  soil. 


CHELAN  COUNTY. 

No.  158  was  sent  in  by  Mr.  J.  F.  VanDyke,  of  Leaven- 
worth. It  was  taken  from  the  Chewawa  River  bottom, 
about  six  miles  north  and  east  of  the  east  end  of  Lake  We- 
natchee. It  was  a coarse  sandy  soil  containing  63.2  per  cent 
of  fine  earth.  The  pebbles  in  the  sample  were  chiefly  par- 
tially decomposed  sandstone  rock.  The  analysis  shows  the 
sample  to  be  rather  poorly  supplied  with  mineral  plant  food, 
lime  especially  being  present  in  unusually  small  amounts 
for  a soil  from  East  of  the  Cascade  Mountains. 

No.  576  was  a sample  of  only  partially  decayed  or  disin- 
tegrated granite.  The  weathering  of  the  rock  had  gone  on 
far  enough  so  that  the  pebbles  of  rock  were  very  rotten  and 
crumbled  easily  between  the  fingers,  and  a considerable 
amount  of  decayed  vegetable  matter  was  present  so  that  the 
material  could  probably  be  classed  as  soil.  It  was  sent  in  by 
Mr.  H.  C.  Peters,  of  Seattle,  but  was  taken  from  the  south- 
east quarter  of  Sec.  14-24-17  E.,  a little  over  a mile  north  of 


24 


Washintgon  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


Leavenworth.  Mr.  Peters  describes  it  as'follows:  “The 
property  lies  at  the  foot  of  a mountain  in  the  Cascade  Ridge 
running  up  some  5000  feet.  The  valley  is  a mile  and  a half 
long,  by  a half  a mile  wide  and  is  in  the  valleys  of  the  We- 
natchee and  Icicle  Rivers.  The  soil  seems  to  be  very  deep, 
twenty  feet  or  more,  and  apparently  is  a deposit  of  decom- 
posed granite  washed  down  from  the  hill  and  forming  a level 
plateau.’ ’ The  analyses  show  the  sample  to  be  very  rich  in 
potash  and  lime,  and  well  stocked  with  phosphoric  acid, 
humus,  and  nitrogen.  Whether  these  ingredients  are  in 
such  form  that  they  may  easily  become  available  for  plant 
food  in  sufficient  quantities  can  only  be  ascertained  by  ex- 
perimental crops,  but  the  probability  is  that  this  will  prove 
a very  fertile  soil. 

Nos.  1885  and  1886  were  sent  in  by  Mr.  J.  F.  Littoooy, 
manager  of  the  Wenatchee  Canal  Company’s  orchards  at  We- 
natchee, in  response  to  the  writer’s  request  for  representa- 
tive samples  of  the  Wenatchee  fruit  lands.  No.  1885  repre- 
sents the  upper  bench  lands,  lying  at  an  elevation  of  some 
thirty  to  fifty  feet  above  the  Columbia  River,  and  No.  1886 
represents  the  lower  bench  lying  between  the  higher  land 
and  the  river  bottom  proper.  The  samples  are  quite  similar 
in  their  chemical  composition,  both  being  very  rich  in  pot- 
ash, and  well  supplied  with  lime  and  phosphoric  acid,  and 
having  a fair  amount  of  humus  and  nitrogen.  The  fine  earth 
of  the  lower  soil  is  slightly  richer  in  all  the  essential  ele- 
ments of  fertility  than  the  soil  of  the  upper  bench,  but  this 
is  more  than  counterbalanced  by  the  fact  that  it  contains 
44.7  per  cent  of  coarse  sand,  etc.,  which  is  unavailable  for 
plant  food  purposes.  Both  soils  are  amply  supplied  with 
plant  food,  and  under  proper  cultivation,  especially  when  ir- 
rigated, are  capable  of  the  very  highest  fertility. 


No.  1416 

77.638 
8.972 
0.898 
0.380 
0.185 
0.563 
0.171 
none 
5.198 
3 155 
0.102 
none 
none 
3.672 

100.834 

1.280 

0.078 

0.996 

No.  1242 

CTiCCO-T'OcO^  M CCC 

TT  lC  i-h  ^ CO  t^>  CD  ~ O rH  O q oc 

CO  o O O O O © 2 CD  oi  o’  o 2 CO 

1 

100.419 

1.280 

0.085 

1.534 

DOUGLAS 

No.  1241 

73.494 
11.676 
0.447 
0.298 
0.302 
0.568 
0 568 
none 
7-715 
1.700 
0.126 
0 017 
none 
3.338 

1 °° 
5* 
<N 

d 

© 

0.990 

0.049 

1.516 

CO 

W 

►— i 

No.  1024 

78.798 

6.882 

0.460 

0.312 

0.329 

1.120 

0.445 

none 

5.290 

4.472 

0.050 

none 

none 

1.450 

99.808 

0.380 

0.026 

0.432 

55 

P 

O 

o 

CO 

< 

»-r 

o 

p 

o 

No.  868 

OOfiOiCHCD^UtMLO^N*  1 
-r  co  co  <M  <D  c^f(Di0H«0  05 

CD  *0  © «CDt*OOJ  g<DOfH^O>00 

ag  o o o o ib  o 2 co  o o’  cc  m 

i 

1 ss 
1 ® 
lO 

d 

i " 

0.890  1 
0 069 
0 690 

No.  1890 

<o  Tf  50  oi  to  Tt<  r-  o 

WHNO-UJO  gOOVrHO  r® 

WMOoboo  g v <o d o' 

1 

100.658 

2.103 

0.126 

2.252 

Q 

ft 

£ 

<3 

fc 

>4 

O 

No.  1087 

0.368 

0.919 

0.129 

4.897 

0.127 

4.280 

£ 

a 

o 

c> 

£ 

O 

g. 

3 

No.  742 

76.376 
6.484 
0.256 
0.524 
0.568 
0 755 
0.746 
none 
3.560 
6.990 
0.150 
0.033 
none 
4 323 

100.657 

2.385 

0.132 

2.024 

t— < 

►4 

No.  741 

cDCC-*‘COcDrJ-~  U'^CDr^'M  ^ © 1 
Tf^lCCCH^OOa-rM»-:Or-^  1 

io co  c*  ^ io go io  goot^rHp  geo 
hjbbdo'od  g co cd* o 

100.474 

1.815 

0.121 

2.350 

Insoluble  Silica 
Hydrated  •' 

Soluble  “ 

Potash  (KaO) 

Soda  (Na.,0) 

Lime  (CaO) 

Magnesia  (MgO) 

Manganese  Dioxide  (Mn02) 
Iron  Oxide  (Fe203) 

Alumina  (A1203) 

Phos.  Pentoxide  (P205) 
Sulphur  Trioxide(S03) 
Carbon  Dioxide  (C02) 

Vol.  & Organic  Matter 

Total 

Humus 

Total  Nitrogen 
Water  in  Air-dry  Soil 

26 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


LINCOLN  COUNTY. 

Nos.  741  and  742  were  sent  in  by  Mr.  Wm.  L.  Lauritzen, 
of  Wilbur,  who  writes:  “I  send  you  herewith  two  samples 
of  soil  from  land  near  Wilbur,  Sec.  4-26-33  E.,  which  1 think 
will  represent  the  average  soil  in  this  locality.  One  sample, 
(No.  741), is  soil  which  has  never  been  under  cultivation  and 
the  other.  (No.  742),  is  soil  that  was  plowed  the  first  time  in 
1886,  and  this  year  it  raised  a crop  of  thirty  bushels  of  wheat 
to  the  acre;  it  never  had  any  kind  of  manure,  except  of 
course  the  stubble  and  weeds  plowed  under  when  summer 
f allowed.’ ’ These  samples  represent  soil  abundantly  supplied 
with  all  the  essential  elements  of  plant  food.  The  somewhat 
greater  percentages  of  potash,  phosphoric  acid,  and  lime  in 
the  soil  which  has  been  under  cultivation  without  manuring 
for  twenty  years  are  unexplainable  except  on  the  grounds  of 
differences  in  the  original  virgin  soils  in  the  two  spots  from 
which  the  soil  came. 

No.  1087  was  brought  in  to  the  laboratory  by  Mr.  Otto 
Wollweber,  of  Reardan,  who  stated  that  the  sample  is  typical 
soil  of  northeastern  Lincoln  Co.  The  sample  was  taken  from 
Sec.  10-26-39  E.  The  soil  has  been  under  cultivation  for 
twenty-one  years,  and  has  produced  eighteen  crops  of  wheat 
and  two  crops  of  sugar  beets.  A complete  analysis  of  this 
sample  was  not  made,  but  the  percentages  of  the  elements 
which  were  determined  show  it  to  be  practically  identical  in 
composition  with  Nos.  741  and  742. 

No.  1890  was  sent  in  by  Mr.  M.  T.  Brislawn,  of  Sprague, 
and  was  selected  by  him  as  a representative  sample  of  the 
Sprague  wheat  lands.  It  came  from  Sec.  19-22-39  E.,  and 
was  taken  from  a high  level  strip  where  there  was  no  possi- 
bility of  any  kind  of  sedimentation,  and  so  represents  typical 
unaltered  soil  of  this  district.  It  came  from  land  which  had 
been  under  cultivation  for  a few  years.  The  results  of  the 
analysis  show  it  to  be  very  similar  in  composition  to  the 
other  soils  from  this  county.  In  fact,  the  soil  throughout 
that  part  of  the  Big  Bend  country  lying  east  of  the  Douglas 
County  line  seems  to  be  very  uniform  in  its  chemical  compo- 
sition. 


Bulletin  No.  65 — Washing  ton  Soils 


27 


DOUGLAS  COUNTY. 

No.  868  is  a sample  of  a light  sandy  soil  containing  some 
alkali,  sent  in  by  Mr.  Ernest  Peterson,  of  Ephrata.  It  was 
taken  from  his  land  lying  about  75  rods  from  Soap  Lake. 
Mr.  Peterson  writes:  “A  great  part  of  this  land  is  covered 
with  salt  grass.  In  places  there  was  no  salt  grass— corn  was 
good,  seven  feet  tall  and  every  stalk  with  one  or  two  ears 
eight  to  ten  inches  long,  and  in  some  places  nine  ears  to  the 
hill;  but  where  the  salt  grass  was  the  corn  did  not  grow 
more  than  five  feet  tall  and  then  died  out.  We  have  had  no 
luck  with  potatoes  so  far.  The  sample  was  taken  from  eight 
different  spots  to  a depth  of  eighteen  inches.  It  was  under- 
laid with  a hard-pan  subsoil.,,  It  was  found  to  contain 
0.326  per  cent  of  water-soluble  salts  or  alkali,  an  amount 
somewhat  higher  than  is  tolerated  by  most  plants.  These 
salts  were  all  in  the  form  of  white  alkali,  however,  whicn  is 
the  least  harmful  form.  The  soil  contains  a good  supply  of 
potash  and  phosphoric  acid,  and  a large  excess  of  lime 
amounting  to  almost  10  per  cent  of  carbonate  of  lime.  The 
supply  of  humus  and  nitrogen  is  low.  Mr.  Peterson  writes 
that  the  land  cannot  be  flooded  for  the  removal  of  the  alkali, 
and  a heavy  treatment  with  rich  manure  was  suggested  as 
the  best  remedy  for  the  alkali  and  at  the  same  time  an  im- 
provement in  the  supply  of  humus  and  nitrogen  in  the  soil. 

No.  1024  was  a sample  of  the  very  sandy  soil  of  that  part 
of  Douglas  County  lying  south  of  the  line  of  the  Great  Nor- 
thern Railroad.  It  was  sent  in  by  Mr.  H.  W.  Olney,  of  Spo- 
kane, but  was  taken  from  land  lying  fifteen  miles  southeast 
of  Winchester.  The  analysis  shows  this  sandy  soil  to  be 
well  supplied  with  potash  and  an  abundance  of  lime.  It  has 
a low  percentage  of  phosphoric  aicd  and  only  very  slight 
amounts  of  humus  and  nitrogen.  With  conditions  very 
favorable  for  the  availability  of  the  plant  food  in  the  soil  it 
will  probably  produce  crops  for  a time  if  a sufficient  supply 
of  water  can  be  had,  but  the  humus  and  nitrogen  are  present 
in  such  small  quantities  that  they  will  have  to  be  very  ma- 
terially built  up  before  any  very  permanent  fertility  is  pos- 
sible. 


28 


Washington  Agyicultural  Experiment  Station 


Nos.  1241  and  1242  were  sent  in  by  Mr.  F.  E.  Weston,  of 
the  Washington  Land  Co.,  of  Waterville,  as  representative 
samples  of  the  wheat  lands  of  the  Waterville  district.  Mr. 
Weston  writes  concerning  the  samples:  “Sample  No.  1 

(Laboratory  No.  1241)  was  taken  from  the  southwest  quarter 
of  Sec.  10-25-24  E.,  and  is  virgin  soil.  The  land  is  situated 
about  fifteen  miles  from  the  Columbia  River  and  the  soil  in 
this  locality  is  considerably  lighter  than  that  along  the 
breaks  of  the  river,  and  the  best  results  are  obtained  from 
winter  wheats,  as  spring  wheat  is  apt  to  burn  on  this  soil. 
Sample  No.  2 (Laboratory  No.  1242)  was  taken  from  the 
northeast  quarter  of  Sec. 2 -25-22  E.  This  soil  is  considered 
as  strong  as  any  in  the  Waterville  district  and  spring  wheat 
does  better  than  winter.’ ’ The  analyses  show  the  reason  for 
the  greater  fertility  of  the  second  sample,  since  it  contains 
more  of  each  of  the  necessary  elements  than  does  No.  1. 
Both  of  these  are  well  balanced  soils,  but  will  probably  need 
replenishing  with  humus  before  anything  else  becomes  de- 
ficient. 

No.  1416  was  brought  to  the  laboratory  by  Mr.  E.  A. 
White,  of  Lewiston,  Idaho,  but  was  taken  from  the  Grand 
Coulee  in  Twp.  27-29  E.,  in  the  northeastern  part  of  Douglas 
County.  It  represents  a considerable  area  of  land  in  this 
coulee  which  it  is  proposed  to  irrigate^from  springs  of  water 
coming  from  the  walls  of  the  coulee.  The  soil  is  a very  fine 
clay,  resembling  very  closely  the  clays  of  the  Okanogan 
River  Valley.  The  analysis  shows  a very  well  balanced  con- 
dition of  the  essential  elements  of  fertility.  The  percentages 
of  these  elements,  while  not  high,  are  sufficient  for  a fairly 
permanent  fertility,  and  if  properly  irrigated  this  soil  should 
be  very  productive.  The  sample  showed  .032  per  cent  of 
black  alkali,  and  .052  per  cent  of  white  alkali,  but  these 
amounts  are  not  sufficient  to  cause  injury  to  most  crops. 


Bulletin  No.  85 — Washington  Soils 


29 


ADAMS  COUNTY. 

The  two  samples  from  Adams  Co.  were  secured  as  repre- 
senting the  wheat  lands  of  the  famous  Ritzville  district.  No. 
1699  was  sent  in  by  Mr.  0.  N.  Campbell,  of  Hatton.  It  was 
taken  from  Sec  15-15-31E.,  and  represents  the  virgin  soil  of 
the  table  land  west  of  Hatton.  The  analysis  shows  it  to  be 
well  supplied  with  potash  and  lime,  but  quite  low  in  phos- 
phoric acid  and  nitrogen.  As  these  are  the  two  elements 
most  largely  drawn  upon  by  cereal  crops,  the  adaptibility  of 
this  soil  to  long  continued  cropping  to  wheat  alone  seems 
very  doubtful. 

No.  1837  was  sent  in  by  Mr.  D.  A.  Scott,  of  Ritzville.  It 
represents  virgin  soil  and  was  taken  from  the  northwest 
quarter  of  Sec,  16-19-34  E.  The  analysis  shows  it  to  be  well 
supplied  with  notash  and  lime,  and  fairly  well  with  phos- 
phoric acid,  humus  and  nitrogen.  It  is  probable  that  with 
continuous  cropping  with  cereals  alone  the  supply  of  humus 
and  nitrogen  will  in  time  become  insufficient,  but  for  the 
present  the  soil  is  well  supplied  with  plant  food. 


ADAMS 

WHITMAN 

No.  1699 

No.  1837 

No.  1888 

Insoluble  Silica 

82  465 

82.328 

79.740 

Hydrated  “ 

4.268 

1.500 

2.220 

Soluble  “ 

0.380 

0.285 

0.495 

Potash  (K20) 

0.450 

0.411 

0.506 

Soda  (Na26) 

0.350 

0.411 

0.249 

Lime  (CaO) 

0.618 

0.591 

0.508 

Magnesia  (MgO) 

0.684 

0.258 

0.194 

Manganese  Dioxide  (Mn02) 

none 

none 

none 

Iron  Oxide  (Fe203) 

4.205 

4.403 

5.196 

Alumina  (Al203) 

4.235 

5.205 

4.735 

Phos.  Pentoxide  (P205) 

0.042 

0.120 

0.187 

Sulphur  Trioxide  (»03) 

0.013 

0.058 

0.034 

Carbon  Dioxide  (C02) 

none 

none 

none 

Volatic  and  Organic  Matter 

2.505 

4.249 

5.190 

Total 

100.215 

99.919 

99.254 

Humus 

0.929 

1.320 

2.848 

Total  Nitrogen 

0.043 

.090 

0.138 

Moisture  In  Air-dry  Soil 

1.020 

1.652 

1.630 

WHITMAN  COUNTY. 

No.  1888  was  sent  in  in  response  to  the  request  of  the 
writer  by  Mr.  S.  A.  Small,  of  Winona.  It  was  taken  from  a 


30 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


point  a quarter  of  a mile  east  of  the  town  of  Winona  and  was 
selected  as  a representative  sample  of  tne  wheat  lands  of 
that  part  of  Western  Whitman  County.  It  shows  the  same 
general  characteristics  as  the  Palouse  basaltic  soil  and  is 
better  supplied  with  humus  and  nitrogen  than  was  expected 
of  a soil  of  so  light  a type. 


ASOTIN  COUNTY. 


GARFIELD 

ASOTIN 

! 

No.  1134 

No.  1133 

No.  1420 

No.  1431 

No.  1432 

Insoluble  Silica 

) 

) 

6T282 

78.74U 

82.156 

Hydrated  “ 

' > ' 80.173 

} 87.997 

4.212 

3.968 

2.618 

Soluble 

) 

0.435 

0.330 

0 222 

Potash  (KoO) 

0.567 

0.320 

0.434 

0.426 

0.391 

Soda  (Na.jO) 

0.281 

0.326 

0.196 

0 145 

0.252 

Lime  (CaO 

0.726 

0.609 

0.480 

0.535 

0.549 

Magnesia  (MgO) 

0.847 

0.632 

0.239 

0.095 

0.210 

Manganese  Dioxide  (MnCL) 

none 

none 

none 

none 

none 

Iron  Oxide  (FoO,;) 

6.370 

4 133 

6. 151 

8.413 

6.111 

Alumina  (ALO^j 

5.280 

3.370 

10.010 

3.175 

4.315 

Phos.  Pentoxide  (PoCX-,) 

0.127 

0 081 

0.052 

1 0.042 

0.047 

Sulphur  Trioxide  (SO;i) 

.053 

0.037 

0 051 

none 

none 

Carbon  Dioxide  (CO  .) 

none 

none 

none 

none 

none 

Volatic  and  Organic  Matter 

6 355 

2.526 

8.723 

4.062 

! 3 322 

Total 

99.784 

100.000 

100  265 

99.931 

100.192 

Humus 

2.970 

1 335 

3.744 

1405 

1.780 

Total  Nitrogen 

0 164 

0.C46 

0.185 

0 064 

0.032 

Water  in  Air-dry  Cells 

2.416 

1.040 

3.468 

1 1.378 

1.404 

Nos.  1133,  1431  and  1432  are  samples  taken  under  the 
writer’s  direction  from  different  parts  of  the  Clarkston  flat. 
They  represent  three  different  sections  of  the  flat.  No.  1431 
was  taken  from  the  upper  bench,  or  hillside,  near  the  high- 
line  ditch.  No.  1133  came  from  the  main  and  most  fertile 
ridge  of  the  flat,  and  No.  1432  from  a lower,  more  gravelly 
ridge  running  through  the  business  portion  of  the  city  of 
Clarkston.  The  analyses  show  this  sedimentary  soil  to  be 
well  supplied  with  potash  and  lime,  but  rather  low  in  phos- 
phoric acid  and  nitrogen.  They  are  a good  type  of  fruit  soil, 
however.  Their  fertility  can  probably  be  considerably  im- 
proved by  sowing  an  occasional  crop  of  red  clover  in  the  fall 
and  plowing  it  under  in  the  spring. 


Bulletin  No.  85 — Washington  Soils 


3i 


No.  1420  was  sent  in  by  Mr.  J.  Stueky,  of  Anatone.  It 
came  from  the  farm  of  Mr.  C.  Taplin,  in  Sec.  2-7-45  E.,  and 
represents  the  wheat-growing  lands  of  Ten  Mile  Creek  Val- 
ley. It  is  rather  low  in  phosphoric  acid,  but  otherwise  well 
supplied  with  plant  food. 

GARFIELD  COUNTY. 

The  single  sample  which  it  has  been  possible  to  obtain 
was  sent  in  at  the  writer's  request  by  Mr.  Henry  Schneck- 
loth,  of  Mayview,  and  is  said  to  represent  the  general  soil  of 
northern  Garfield  County.  The  soil  is  a fine  black  loam,  of 
excellent  physical  properties.  The  analysis  shows  it  to  be 
one  of  the  best,  if  not  the  best  soil,  as  far  as  can  be  judged 
by  chemical  analysis,  that  has  been  found  in  the  state. 
There  can  be  no  doubt  of  the  long  continued  fertility  of  this 
soil. 


COLUMBIA  COUNTY. 

No.  1135  was  sent  in  upon  request  of  the  writer  by  Mr. 
J.  W.  McIntosh,  of  Starbuck,  as  a representative  sample  of 
the  wheat  lands  of  northern  Columbia  county.  It  was  taken 
from  the  northeast  quarter  of  Sec.  8-2-38  E.  The  analysis 
shows  it  to  be  very  similar  in  composition  to  No.  1134, 
which  came  from  the  northern  end  of  Garfield  Co.,  with  the 
exception  that  this  sample  is  somewhat  lower  in  humus  and 
nitrogen.  It  appears,  therefore,  that  the  wheat  lands  lying 
in  that  part  of  the  southeastern  section  of  the  state  which 
lies  north  of  the  Pataha  River  are  rich  soils,  well  balanced 
in  fertility,  but  decreasing  in  humus  toward  the  west  end  of 
the  district. 

Nos.  1411  and  1412  were  sent  in  by  Mr.  J.  L.  Dumas,  of 
Huntsville.  They  represent  the  soil  of  the  Touchet  Valley. 
They  were  taken  from  Sec.  4-9-38  E.  No.  1411  is  virgin  soil 
while  No.  1412  is  from  adjoining  land  which  has  been  under 
cultivation  for  45  years.  They  show  the  soil  to  be  rich  and 
well  balanced  in  its  fertility.  The  effect  of  the  long-contin- 
ued cropping  of  No.  1412  is  shown  in  its  lower  percentages 
of  potash,  phosphoric  acid,  organic  matter  and  nitrogen. 
The  proportion  of  the  organic  matter  which  has  been  con- 
verted into  humus  is  higher  because  of  the  cultivation. 


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Rulletin  No.  85 — Washington  Soils 


33 


WALLA  WALLA  COUNTY. 

No.  1698  is  not  a representative  Walla  Walla  County  soil. 
It  came  from  a sandy  bar  on  the  south  sideYff  the  Snake 
River  near  the  junction  of  the  latter  with  the  Columbia.  It 
was  sent  in  by  Mr.  J.  R.  Greer,  of  Pasco,  who  requested  in- 
formation as  to  its  adaptibility  to  certain  fruits,  and  its 
probable  fertilizer  needs.  The  similarity  of  this  soil  to  that 
of  the  Clarkston  flat  lying  one  hundred  miles  further  up  the 
river  is  very  interesting.  Practically  the  only  difference  be- 
tween them  is  in  the  percentage  of  decayed  organic  matter, 
this  being  much  less  in  the  newer  flat  at  the  mouth  of  the 
river.  The  percentage  of  humus  and  nitrogen  is,  therefore, 
much  lower  in  this  soil.  This  soil  needs  fertilizing  with 
some  nitrogenous  humus-forming  material  like  dried  blood, 
or  tankage,  which  would  also  tend  to  replenish  the  some- 
what low  supply  of  phosphoric  acid.  Plowing  under  a green 
clover  crop  would  be  very  beneficial  treatment  for  such  a 
soil.  Barnyard  manure,  if  available,  would  produce  very  ex- 
cellent results  on  this  soil. 

No.  1842  was  sent  in  by  Mr.  W.  D.  Church,  of  Walla 
Walla.  It  was  taken  from  his  farm  in  Sec.  25-7-35  E.  The 
soil  is  a black  clayey  loam,  twelve  to  fourteen  inches  deep 
overlaying  a subsoil  of  yellow  clay,  which  in  turn  overlays  a 
stratum  of  infusorial  earth.  The  sample  represents  the 
black  earth.  The  analysis  shows  it  to  be  very  rich  soil, 
abundantly  supplied  with  all  the  essential  elements  of  fertil- 
ity. 

Nos.  1845  and  1846  were  sent  in  by  Mr.  J.  H.  Elerath, 
of  Walla  Walla.  They  were  taken  from  Sec.  23-7-35  E.,  a 
part  of  the  celebrated  Blalock  fruit  farm.  No.  1845  repre- 
sents the  very  light  volcanic  ash  soil  which  is  so  common 
throughout  Walla  Walla  County.  No.  1846  is  a dark  sandy 
loam,  which  has  been  used  for  several  years  as  a garden 
truck  soil.  Both  of  these  samples  are  rather  low  in  phos- 
phoric acid  and  nitrogen,  but  well  supplied  with  potash  and 
lime.  The  use  of  dried  blood  or  tankage  as  a fertilizer  was 
recommended. 


Bulletin  No.  85 — Washington  Soils 


35 


BENTON  COUNTY. 

No.  142  is  a sample  of  the  layer  of  white  “cement" 
which  underlays  a large  part  of  the  soil  of  the  Yakima  Val- 
ley, at  varying  depths.  It  was  taken  by  the  writer  from  an 
exposure  of  this  layer  in  a cellar  which  was  being  dug  at 
Kennewick.  This  layer  forms  a hard,  cement-like  mortar 
with  the  gravel  of  the  soil,  but  when  exposed  to  the  air  it 
dries  out  and  crumbles  to  pieces,  or  “slakes."  It  is  variously 
considered  by  the  citizens  of  that  section  as  “cement,"  “al- 
kali," “hard-pan,"  “lime,"  etc.  Under  the  microscope  it 
presents  the  appearance  of  finely  ground  glass,  being  com- 
posed almost  wholly  of  minute  transparent  angular  crystals. 
The  results  of  the  analysis  show  that  it  is  probably  a volcanic 
silicate,  containing  enough  carbonate  of  lime  and  magnesia 
to  give  it  slight  cementing  properties.  A surprising  amount  of 
iron,  alumina,  and  phosphoric  acid,  is  present,  in  view  of 
the  transparent  crystalline  structure  of  the  material.  There 
is  apparently  nothing  injurious  to  plant  growth  in  this  ma- 
terial, its  worst  feature  being  its  cementing  power,  by  which 
it  tends  to  form  a hard-pan  impervious  to  water  and  not 
easily  penetrable  by  plant  roots. 

No.  708  was  sent  in  by  Mr.  John  Murray,  of  Prosser. 
It  was  taken  from  his  farm  on  the  north  side  of  the  Yakima 
river,  in  Sec.  24-9-23  E.  It  represents  the  fine,  sandy  “sage- 
brush" soil  of  the  Yakima  Valley.  Like  other  samples  from 
this  district,  it  is  fairly  well  supplied  with  potash  and  phos- 
phoric acid,  very  high  in  lime,  and  poor  in  humus  and  nitro- 
gen. 

No.  743  was  sent  in  by  Mr.  Fay  F.  Dean,  of  Kennewick, 
who  writes:  “The  soil  was  taken  from  Sec.  10-8-30  E.,  about 
four  and  one-half  miles  below  the  town  of  Kennewick,  or 
near  the  center  of  the  irrigated  portion  of  the  valley.  It 
represents  the  soil  throughout  the  valley,  except  a small  por- 
tion lying  on  the  low  lands  adjoining  the  Columbia  River. 
The  soil  I send  you  is  underlaid  with  a ‘cement  gravel'  (see 
No.  142)  at  a depth  ranging  from  eighteen  inches  to  three 
feet.  ...  So  far  as  I can  see,  the  sample  I am  sending  you 
is  identical  with  nine-tenths  of  the  soil  in  the  entire  valley." 


36 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


The  result  of  the  analysis  of  this  sample  indicates  that  the 
“ Kennewick  sand”  is  well  supplied  with  potash,  lime,  and 
phosphoric  acid,  but  seriously  deficient  in  humus  and  nitro- 
gen. Fortunately  legumes  grow  luxuriantly,  and  the  defi- 
ciency in  this  regard  can  be  easily  overcome  by  plowing 
under  some  leguminous  crop. 

Nos.  745,  767  and  782  represent  the  sandy  soils  of  the 
flats,  or  benches,  along  the  banks  of  the  Columbia  River,  in 
the  southern  part  of  Benton  County. 

No.  745  was  sent  in  by  H.  R.  Mann  and  Co.,  of  Spokane, 
and  was  taken  from  Sec.  33-6-26  E.  No.  767  was  sent  in  by 
Isaac  Pincus  and  Son,  of  Tacoma,  but  came  from  a point  in 
Benton  County,  three  miles  north  of  Umatilla,  Ore.  No.  782 
was  sent  in  by  C.  W.  Corliss,  of  Seattle,  but  was  taken  from 
Sec.  8-5-27,  at  a locality  between  where  Nos.  745  and  767 
were  obtained.  It  was  somewhat  coarser  sand  than  the  other 
two,  containing  43.1  per  cent  of  coarse  sand  and  gravel, 
which  would  not  pass  through  a 0.5mm.  sieve,  while  the 
others  contained  only  small  amounts  of  this  coarse  material. 
All  three  samples  were  rich  in  lime,  fairly  well  supplied  with 
potash, ^but  very  seriously  deficient  in  phosphoric  acid,  hum- 
us, and  nitrogen.  The  latter  might  be  remedied  by  plowing 
under  legumes  wherever  irrigation  is  practicable,  but  phos- 
phate fertilizers  will  be  necessary  in  order  to  supply  the  de- 
ficiency in  phosphoric  acid. 


YAKIMA  COUNTY.  ' 

No.  194  is  a sample  of  the  white  cement  described  above 
as  No.  142.  It  was  sent  in  by  Mr.  George  D.  Sclosser,  of 
Sunnyside.  It  is  similar  in  general  character  to  that  from 
lower  down  the  valley,  but  contains  less  iron  and  alumina, 
less  of  the  cement-forming  carbonates  of  lime  and  magnesia, 
and  correspondingly  greater  amounts  of  silica.  It  is  more 
nearly  pure  volcanic  ash. 

No.  677  is  another  sample  of  the  same  material,  taken 
from  higher  up  the  valley,  by  Professor  0.  L.  Waller,  of  this 
Station.  It  is  a still  purer  form  of  volcanic  ash  silica. 


Bulletin  Afo.  8j — Washington  Soils 


37 


Nos.  545  and  662  are  samples  representing  the  irrigated 
soils  of  the  Yakima  Valley  north  of  the  river.  No.  545  was 
sent  in  by  Mr.  Chas.  Richey,  of  Mabton,  and  No.  662  by  Mr. 
Walter  N.  Granger,  president  of  the  Washington  Irrigation 
Co.  at  Zillah.  They  are  very  similar  in  character,  being  very 
rich  in  lime,  somewhat  low  in  potash  and  phosphoric  acid, 
and  very  low  in  organic  matter,  humus  and  nitrogen. 


KITTITAS  COUNTY. 

Nos.  722  and  723  were  sent  in  by  Mr.  W.  H.  Rader,  of 
Ellensburg.  They  were  taken  from  his  farm  in  Sec.  17-18- 
19  E.,  near  the  Yakima  river.  No.  722  in  the  surface  soil, 
and  No.  723  is  the  subsoil.  These  samples  are  said  to  repre- 
sent the  average  soil  of  the  lower  part  of  the  Yakima  Val- 
ley in  the  Ellensburg  district.  They  show  the  soil  to  be  very 
rich  in  lime,  and  well  supplied  with  potash,  humus  and  ni- 
trogen. The  percentage  of  phosphoric  acid  is  lower  than  in 
many  Eastern  Washington  soils,  but  is  ample  for  long  con- 
tinued fertility. 

No.  751  is  a sample  of  the  “alkali”  soil  of  the  upper 
part  of  the  Ellensburg  district,  handed  to  the  writer  by  Mr. 
S.  C.  Boedcher,  of  Ellensburg.  It  was  taken  from  Sec.  30- 
17-19.  It  contained  0.996  per  cent  of  water-soluble  salts,  or 
"‘alkali,”  of  which  about  two-thirds,  or  0.636  per  cent,  are  in 
the  form  known  as  ‘‘black  alkali.”  This  is  much  more  alkali 
than  is  tolerated  by  any  crop,  and  the  land  will  have  to  be 
flooded  and  drained  to  remove  this  alkali  before  it  can  be 
successfully  cropped.  The  sample  contained  over  31  per  cent 
of  carbonates  of  lime  and  magnesia.  While  these  are  not 
necessarily  injurious  substances,  it  is  doubtful  whether  a 
soil  containing  so  large  a percentage  as  this  will  ever  pro- 
duce crops  successfully. 


Estimated  by  difference. 


Bulletin  No.  85 — Washington  Soils 


39 


KLICKITAT  COUNTY. 

Nos.  8 and  9 were  sent  in  by  Mr.  J.  A.  Pearson,  but 
were  taken  from  his  ranch  in  Cedar  Valley,  Klickitat  County, 
where  cooperative  experiments  with  this  Station  in  growing- 
grasses  are  being  carried  on.  Mr.  Pearson  writes  that  these 
samples  accurately  represent  the  virgin  soil  of  Cedar  Valley. 
No.  8 is  surface  soil  'and  No.  9 is  subsoil.  The  soil  is  a heavy, 
back  clay  loam.  The  analyses  show  it  to  be  well  stocked 
with  mineral  plant  food,  but  slightly  low  in  humus  and  ni- 
trogen. The  fertility  probably  extends  to  a good  depth,  the 
subsoil  being  richer  in  potash  and  phosphoric  acid  than  the 
surface  soil  and  containing  unusually  amounts  of  humus  and 
nitrogen  for  this  type  of  subsoil. 

No.  190  was  sent  in  by  Mr.  0.  F.  Riebel,  of  Spokane, 
but  was  taken  from  his  farm  lying  one  mile  north  of  Block- 
house, in  Klickitat  County.  Mr.  Riebel  writes  that:  “This 
ground  is  all  covered  with  a considerable  growth  of  pine 
timber  but  is  near  the  edge  of  the  prairie.  Some  apple 
trees  and  berry  bushes  seem  to  do  well,  but  we  are  told  by 
people  living  in  the  neighborhood  that  the  soil  is  sour  and 
will  not  grow  wheat  or  alfalfa — others  say  that  a fair  crop  of 
wheat  can  be  grown.  The  altitude  is  1700  to  1800  feet.  I 
would  be  glad  to  get  your  opinion  as  to  what  ought  to  be 
done  on  a soil  of  this  kind  where  there  is  sufficient  water 
for  irrigation,  and  plenty  of  sunshine  in  summer.”  The  an- 
alysis shows  the  soil  to  be  rather  low  in  all  the  essential  ele- 
ment of  plant  food,  but  not  likely  to  be  “sour”  Soils  such 
as  this  may  be  fertile  if  thoroughly  tilled,  but  unless  very 
carefully  handled  the  supply  of  plant  food  is  likely  to  prove 
insufficient  A complete  fertilizer  would  likely  prove  very 
beneficial  on  this  kind  of  soil.  Manure  would  be  especially 
valuable,  as  it  would  improve  the  physical  condition  as  well 
as  add  plant  food  to  it. 

No.  512  was  sent  in  by  Mr.  Albert  Bertschi,  of  Glen- 
wood,  who  describes  the  sample  as  follows:  “The  sample 
of  soil  represents  several  thousand  acres  of  land  lying  in  one 
body  west  of  the  Klickitat  river,  and  generally  known  as 
Camas  Prairie.  It  is  light  colored  sandy  soil  from  one  to 


40 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


four  feet  deep,  underlaid  with  gravel  in  which  there  is  an 
inexhaustible  supply  of  water.  The  soil  is  always  moist  to 
the  surface,  and  is  always  mellow,  but  does  not  produce.' ’ 
The  analysis  shows  !the  soil  to  be  very  deficient  in  potash, 
and  phosphoric  acid.  This  is  doubtless  the  reason  for  the 
lack  of  productiveness. 

No.  1025  is  a sample  sent  in  by  Mr.  F.N. Wilde,  of  Lyle, 
who  states  that  it  comes  from  Sec.  13-3-12  E.,  and  that  it 
will  not  grow  any  of  the  common  vegetables.  It  is  a coarse 
red  clay.  A complete  analysis  was  not  made,  but  the  per- 
centages of  potash,  lime,  phosphoric  acid  and  nitrogen  found, 
while  low,  are  not  so  low  as  to  account  for  the  unproductive- 
ness of  the  soil.  This  must  be  due  to  very  poor  physical 
condition,  or  to  improper  moisture  supply  in  soil,  or  some- 
thing of  that  kind. 


• SKAMANIA  COUNTY. 

No.  661  was  sent  in  by  Thos.  Elce,  of  Underwood.  It 
is  a coarse  red  clay  soil,  reprsenting  the  soil  of  the  foothills 
of  the  Cascade  Mountains,  at  an  elevation  of  2000  feet  or 
more.  It  is  a fairly  well  balanced  soil,  although  slightly  low 
in  nitrogen.  ^ The  physical  condition  is  such  that  it  will  need 
very  careful  tillage  to  get  good  results,  but  with  such  tillage 
it  ought  to  be  a quite  fertile  soil.  No.  1102  was  sent  in  by 
Mr.  M.  Walton,  of  Portland,  Oregon,  but  was  taken  from 
his  ranch  in  the  White  Salmon  district  in  Skamania  County, 
at  a point  about  two  miles  from  where  No.  661  was  taken. 
Mr.  Walton,  in  writing  in  regard  to  the  sample  says  that  it 
is  a very  different  type  than  No.  661.  The  determinations 
made  on  this  sample  do  not  show  it  to  be  strikingly  differ- 
ent, however,  except  that  it  contains  a very  much  better 
supply  of  nitrogen. 


42 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


CLARKE  COUNTY. 

No.  172  was  sent  in  by  Mr.  Fred  Edmonds,  of  Ridge- 
fied.  It  was  taken  from  his  ranch  near  Ridgefield,  and  rep- 
resents the  shot  clay  soil  so  common  thoughout  the  south- 
western part  of  the  state.  It  is  well  supplied  with  phos- 
phoric acid  and  nitrogen,  but  very  low  in  potash.  The  per- 
centages of  lime,  while  sufficient  for  an  ordinary  loam  soil, 
is  insufficient  for  the  best  results  in  a heavy  clay  of  this 
type. 

No.  330  is  a sample  of  a very  peculiar  peaty  soil  con- 
taining some  decomposed  mineral  matter,  and  many  small 
crystals  of  nearly  pure  quartz.  It  was  sent  in  by  Mr.  John 
Wood,  of  Amboy.  The  determinations  made  on  it  show 
that  it  is  very  deficient  in  potash  and  lime.  It  would  re- 
quire heavy  applications  of  lime  and  frequent  use  of  potash 
fertilizers  to  make  this  soil  a fertile  soil. 

No.  331  is  a sample  of  virgin  soil  from  the  parade 
ground  of  the  Vancouver  Barracks.  It  was  sent  in  by  Capt. 
Walden,  of  the  U.  S.  Army,  stationed  at  the  post,  with  a re- 
quest for  advice  as  to  the  best  treatment  to  secure  a good 
growth  of  grass  for  a turf.  The  soil  was  very  gravelly,  con- 
taining 55  per  cent,  of  material  too  coarse  to  pass  through 
the  0.5mm.  sieve.  The  analysis  of  the  fine  earth  recorded 
in  the  table  above  shows  it  to  be  unusually  rich  in  phos- 
phoric acid  and  nitrogen,  well  supplied  with  lime,  and  with 
a fair  amount  of  potash  for  a soil  of  this  type.  Heavy  ap- 
plications of  barnyard  manure,  or  other  humus  forming  ma- 
terials, were  recommended  as  being  the  best  treatment  for 
this  soil,  since  this  would  be  likely  to  increase  the  avail- 
ability of  the  plant  food. 


WAHKIAKUM  COUNTV. 

The  three  samples  from  Wahkiakum  County  were  sent 
in,  on  request  of  the  writer,  by  Mr.  Henry  Ahlberg,  of 
Grays  River,  who  described  them  as  follows:  ‘'No.  1,  (Lab- 
oratory No.  692),  was  taken  in  the  brush  lands  to  a depth  of 
one  foot,  river  bottom  land  covered  with  maple  and  crab 


Bulletin  No.  85 — Washington  Soils 


43 


apple  trees  and  elder  berry  and  salmon  berry  bushes.  We 
do  not  know  how  far  to  the  subsoil,  it  appears  to  be  the  same 
nature  for  at  least  twenty  feet,  which  is  as  far  as  we  have 
ever  dug.  No.  2,  (Laboratory  No.  603) , was  taken  from  bot- 
tom land  nearer  to  the  foothills,  the  same  kind  of  timber 
with  an  occasional  spruce  tree.  No.  3,  (Laboratory  No.  604), 
was  taken  from  a flat  bench  about  100  feet  elevation  above 
the  bottom  land.  This  land  bears  the  same  timber,  but  more 
spruces  and  an  occasional  hemlock.  The  subsoil  here  is  a 
yellow  clay  and  lies  eighteen  inches  to  three  feet  below  the 
surface.  We  have  very  little  of  this  flat  upland  in  this 
county.”  After  the  samples  were  analyzed  the  following 
comments  were  sent  to  Mr.  Ahlberg:  “No.  603  should  be 
a very  rich  soil.  It  is  unusually  rich  in  potash  and  lime, 
while  the  supply  of  organic  matter  and  nitrogen  is  good,  and 
the  phosphoric  acid  while  a little  low  is  sufficient  for  all  ordi- 
nary criops.  No.  602  is  lower  in  potash  and  lime,  but  still 
contains  as  much  as  is  ordinarily  present  in  a fertile  soil, 
the  supply  of  nitrogen  and  phosphoric  acid  is  greater  than 
in  No.  603.  No.  604  is  very  rich  in  decaying  organic  matter, 
but  is  very  low  in  lime  and  phosphoric  acid  and  rather  low 
in  potash.  This  soil  is  probably  sour,  and  you  will  probably 
have  difficulty  in  growing  crops  on  it,  particularly  clovers.” 
To  this  Mr.  Ahlberg  replied:  “Your  report  is  a great  pleas- 
ure to  me  and  a vindication  of  science,  in  the  way  you  hit  it 
in  regard  to  the  adaptibility  of  these  soils  to  different  crops 
respectively.  ...  I know  from  experience  which  crops 
to  select  for  the  different  soils,  and  you  told  it  just  right.” 


Bulletin  No.  85 — Washington  Soils 


45 


LEWIS  COUNTY. 

Nos.  783,  784  785,  and  786  were  sent  in  by  Mr.  Geo.  A. 
Castle,  of  Centralia,  in  response  to  a request  of  the  writer 
for  representative  samples  of  Lewis  County  soils.  They 
were  all  taken  from  Sec.  30-85-3  W.  They  are  described  by 
Mr.  Castle  as  follows:  No.  1 (Laboratory  No.  783)  Hill  soil, 
burned,  cleared,  plowed,  and  sowed  to  red  clover  four  years 
ago,  not  plowed  since.  No.  2 (Laboratory  No.  784)  Hill  soil, 
similar  to  No.  1;  has  been  manured  and  in  garden  for  sever- 
al years.  No.  3 (Laboratory  >No.  785)  Bottom  land  soil, 
cropped  for  twenty  years,  never  manured  much 
No.  4 (Laboratory  No.  786)  Bottom  land  soil  cleared 
in  1870,  and  farmed  ever  since.  Very  little  manure 
was  ever  used  on  this  field.  The  large  variations  in  the  re- 
sults of  the  analyses  of  these  soils  are  difficult  to  account 
for.  It  seems  impossible  that  manuring  alone  could  account 
for  the  large  increase  in  all  the  essential  elements  of  fertil- 
ity in  No.  784  as  compared  with  No.  783.  Or  that  the  longer 
continued  cropping  alone  is  responsible  for  the  large  de- 
crease in  these  elements  in  No.  786  as  compared  with  No. 
785.  If  these  differences  of  treatment  are  the  only  causes 
for  these  striking  differences,  then  the  advantages  of  proper 
handling  of  these  clayey  soils  are  most  apparent. 

No.  1772  was  sent  in  by  Mr.  Geo.  Campbell,  of  Dryad, 
who  writes:  ‘‘The  land  from  which  this  sample  comes  has 

been  cleared  for  four  or  five  years.  It  has  been  cultivated 
for  at  least  three  years.  Last  year  it  was  in  wheat  and 
yielded  a small  crop  except  where  there  had  been  patches  of 
ashes.  It  was  originally  covered  with  a heavy  growth  of 
fir.  The  land  is  on  the  first  bench  above  the  Chehalis  river, 
perhaps  30  or  40  feet  above  the  valley.”  The  analysis  shows 
the  soil  to  be  fairly  well  supplied  with  phosphoric  acid  and 
nitrogen,  but  low  in  potash  and  very  low  in  lime.  A clay 
soil  of  this  type  needs  plenty  of  lime  and  the  lack  of  fertil- 
ity is  doubtless  due  to  a lack  of  lime  and  of  available  potash. 

CHEHALIS  COUNTY. 

The  two  samples  of  soil  from  Chehalis  County  were  sent 
in  by  Mr.  James  Moore,  of  Satsop.  No.  143  represents  the 
peaty  soil  of  an  old  reclaimed  swamp,  and  No.  144  the  up- 
land or  bench  land  of  the  Chehalis  Valley.  These  samples 
are  very  high  in  organic  matter,  and  sour  from  an  excess 
of  organic  acids.  A quantitative  estimation  showed  that  it 


46 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


would  take  at  least  eight  tons  per  acre  of  dry  lime  to  com- 
pletely neutralize  the  acidity  of  soil  No.  143.  At  the  sug- 
gestion of  the  writer  Mr.  Moore  is  now  making  some  exper- 
iments to  determine  just  how  much  lime  he  can  afford  to 
use  on  this  soil.  These  soils  are  rather  low  in  potash,  also, 
but  well  supplied  with  nitrogen  and  phosphoric  acid.  It  is 
probable  that  heavy  applications  of  lime  will  be  all  that  will 
be  necessary  to  bring  them  to  a high  state  of  fertility. 


MASON  COUNTY. 

Only  one  sample  has  ever  been  received  from  Mason 
County.  It  was  sent  in  by  Mr.  J.M.  Sweetland,  of  Union, 
who  states  that  the  soil  is  bottom  land,  that  this  sample  was 
taken  from  Sec.  7-22-3  W.,  and  represents  all  the  tillable  land 
in  that  part  of  the  county;  that  this  land  has  been  under 
cultivation  for  45  years  and  still  yields  good  crops.  The  an- 
alysis shows  that  the  sample  is  somewhat  low  in  potash  but 
otherwise  well  supplied  with  plant  food. 


KING  COUNTY. 

Nos.  159  and  160  were  sent  in  by  Mr.  B.  W.  Alexander, 
of  Vashon,  at  the  request  of  the Vashon  Island  Horticultural 
Association,  in  order  to  learn  if  possible  why  one  soil  is  bet- 
ter adapted  to  the  production  of  the  Clarks  Seedling  straw- 
berry than  the  other.  No.  159  was  taken  from  the  northwest 
quarter  of  the  northwest  quarter  of  Sec.  29-23-3E.  It  grows 
this  variety  of  berries  most  satisfactorily.  It  was  formerly 
covered  with  fir  timber.  After  clearing  it  was  seeded  to  red 
clover  and  used  as  a pasture  for  ten  years.  Commercial  fer- 
tilizers were  applied  each  year— usually  tankage,  at  the  rate 
of  half  a ton  per  acre.  This  soil  contained  37.1  per  cent, 
gravel,  etc.,  and  62.9  per  cent  fine  earth,  and  was  in  fairly 
good  physical  condition.  No.  160  came  from  the  northeast 
quarter  of  the  northeast  quarter  of  Sec.  6-22-3  E.  This  land 
does  not  produce  Clarke's  Seedling  berries,  although  other 
varieties  do  well.  The  land  was  originally  covered  with  fir 
and  alder  timber.  It  has  been  cropped  three  years  to  pota- 
toes, peas  and  strawberries,  respectively.  It  has  never  been 
fertilized.  The  soil  contiains  44.8  per  cent  gravel,  and  55.2 
per  cent  fine  earth,  and  is  in  rather  poor  physical  condition, 
containing  many  hard  lumps.  The  analyses  show  that  No. 
160  is  much  better  supplied  with  total  plant  food  than  No. 
159.  The  difference  in  physical  condition,  and  probably  also 
in  the  availability  of  the  plant  food  caused  by  the  clover 
pasturage  and  the  use  of  fertilizers  doubtless  accounts  for 


Bulletin  No.  85 — Washington  Soils 


47 


the  better  growth  of  berries  on  the  soil  which  is  poorer  in 
total  plant  food. 

Nos.  499,  500  and  744  were  sent  in  by  Mr.  Marion  Ed- 
wards, of  Seattle.  The  first  two  were  taken  from  land  owned 
by  him,  at  Brighton  Beach,  in  Sec.  26-24-3  E.  This  is  an 
old  fern  prairie  region  lying  on  the  west  shore  of  Lake 
Washington.  No.  499  came  from  a spot  which  had  been  for 
some  time  a violet  bed  which  had  been  fertilized  with 
manure  for  several  years.  No.  500  was  taken  from  a spot 
about  one  hundred  feet  away,  which  had  never  been  fertil- 
ized or  cultivated.  No.  744  came  from  a farm  about  a quar- 
ter of  a mile  south  of  this  locality  from  land  owned  by  Mr. 
Albert  Koch,  which  is  of  the  same  general  type  as  the  other 
two  samples,  but  is  unproductive.  Hay,  oats,  and  potatoes 
are  alike  failures  on  this  land.  The  results  of  the  analyses 
fail  to  show  any  reason  for  this  lack  of  fertility.  No.  744  is 
richer  in  potash  and  lime,  than  the  other  two  soils,  is  abund- 
antly supplied  with  nitrogen  and  humus.  The  phosphoric 
acid  content  is  lower  than  in  the  other  two  samples,  but  is 
well  above  the  limit  that  is  usually  considered  ample  for 
farm  crops.  It  may  perhaps  be  that  conditions  in  this  soil 
are  such  that  the  phosphoric  acid  is  not  in  available  form. 
No.  499  shows  quite  a marked  effect  of  the  fertilization  with 
manure,  in  its  increased  humus,  nitrogen  and  phosphoric 
acid.  The  most  surprising  thing  about  these  soils  is  their 
high  percentage  of  lime,  a very  unusual  occurrence  in  soils 
from  that  section  of  the  state. 

SAN  JUAN  COUNTY. 

No.  394  was  sent  in  by  Mr.  G.  E.  Goodwin,  of  Belling- 
ham, but  was  taken  from  his  farm  on  Orcas  Island.  It  is 
very  coarse  soil,  containing  59.1  coarse  sand  and  gravel,  and 
only  40.9  per  cent  earth  fine  enough  to  be  available  for  plant 
food  purposes.  The  fine  earth  is  rich  in  lime  and  phosphoric 
acid,  but  rather  poorly  supplied  with  potash  and  nitrogen. 

Nos.  870  and  871  were  taken  from  land  on  the  island  ly- 
ing in  Sec.  28-37-2  W.,  at  an  elevation  about  175  feet  above 
sea  level.  No.  870  represents  alder  bottom  land  and  No.  871 
fir  upland.  Both  are  now  in  prune  orchard,  which  does  not 
bear  satisfactory  crops  of  fruit.  No.  870  contained  21.  per 
cent  and  No.  871  35.8  per  cent  of  gravel,  coarse  sand,  etc. 
The  percentage  of  potash  in  these  soils  is  low,  otherwise 
they  are  well  supplied  with  plant  food,  except  possibly  the 
phosphoric  acid  in  No.  871.  It  is  probable  that  the  failure  of 
the  trees  to  fruit  well  is  due  to  some  climatic  condition 
rather  than  the  lack  of  fertility,  but  it  is  possible  that  fer- 
tilizing with  potash  salts  might  improve  the  yield  of  fruit. 


Bulletin  No.  8s — Washington  Soils 


49 


Summary  of  the  Soil  Survey 
of  the  State 


The  soil  analyses  recorded  in  this  bulletin  practically  complete  the  soil 
survey  of  the  State,  which  was  commenced  by  the  Department  of  Chemistry 
of  this  Station  fourteen  years  ago.  In  the  course  of  this  survey  one  hun- 
dred and  eighty-eight  samples  of  soil  have  been  analyzed,  coming,  as  is 
shown  below,  from  every  county  in  the  state  except  one.  We  believe  that 
these  samples  include  representatives  of  every  type  of  soil  which  is  found 
in  the  state,  and  that  we  have  now  on  our  records  information  as  to  the 
composition  of  every  type  of  soil  with  which  our  farmers  will  have  to 
deal.  While  the  results  of  a chemical  analysis  do  not  show  many  things 
which  farmers  would  like  to  know  about  their  soils  they  do  afford  certain 
valuable  information  concerning  the  general  character  of  the  different  types 
of  soil  and  often  furnish  indications  of  probable  fertilizer  needs  of  the  soil 
and  lead  to  suggestions  as  to  improvements  in  its  crop  producing  power. 
Such  general  conclusions  as  may  be  safely  drawn  from  the  results  of  this 
soil  survey  are  presented  in  this  summary,  together  with  a few  suggestions 
as  to  soil  treatment  which  it  is  believed  may  be  profitably  applied  in  some 
sections  of  the  state.  More  complete  and  more  detailed  information  con- 
cerning the  maintenance  and  improvement  of  soil  fertility  will  be  found  in 
a bulletin  on  this  subject  which  is  now  in  preparation  and  will  be  issued  in 
the  near  future. 

The  one  hundred  eighty- eight  soil  samples  which  have  been  analyzed 
in  connection  with  this  survey  were  distributed  as  follows : 

EASTERN  WASHINGTON  WESTERN  WASHINGTON 


Adams  County, 

4 samples 

Chehalis  County, 

2 

samples 

Asotin 

44 

4 

Clallam 

2 

Benton 

4 4 

5 

Clarke  “ 

8 

44 

Chelan 

(4 

4 “ 

Cowlitz  “ 

none 

Columbia 

<< 

3 “ 

Island  “ 

2 

«« 

Douglas 

( ( 

6 

Jefferson  “ 

3 

< < 

Ferry 

44 

3 

King 

ii 

“ 

Franklin 

44 

2 “ 

Kitsap  “ 

5 

“ 

Garfield 

4 4 

I “ 

Lewis  “ 

5 

“ 

Kittitas 

4 4 

3 “ 

Mason  “ 

i 

« i 

Klickitat 

44 

5 “ 

Pacific  “ 

2 

“ 

Lincoln 

44 

4 “ 

Pierce  “ 

' 9 

“ 

Okanogan 

7 

San  Juan  “ 

6 

“ 

Spokane 

44 

13 

Skagit 

12 

“ 

Stevens 

44 

IO  “ 

Skamania  “ 

2 

a 

WallaWalla“ 

8 “ 

Snohomish  “ 

5 

tt 

Whitman 

4 4 

6 

Thurston  “ 

4 

tt 

Yakima 

4 4 

II  “ 

Wahkiakum** 

3 

“ 

— 

Whatcom  “ 

7 

Total 

99 

Total 

89 

(« 

50 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


In  some  of  the  counties  the  number  of  samples  is  not  so  large  as  might 
be  desired.  We  have  not  been  able  to  send  out  soil  survey  parties  from  the 
Station,  but  have  had  to  depend  upon  interested  persons  in  the  several  lo- 
calities to  secure  the  samples  for  us.  The  number  of  samples  from  a given 
section  depends,  therefore,  partly  upon  the  number  of  soil  types  in  that  sec- 
tion and  partly  upon  the  amount  of  cooperation  from  persons  in  that  section 
which  we  could  secure.  The  distribution  of  these  samples  throughout  the 
state  is  shown  in  the  accompanying  diagram  (Fig.  i).  The  apparent  ab- 
sence of  representative  samples  from  certain  large  areas  in  the  diagram  is 
due  to  the  fact  that  these  areas  are  mountainous  and  heavily  timbered,  and 
contain  little  or  no  agricultural  lands.  In  this  connection  the  illustration 
of  the  topography  of  the  state  as  shown  by  the  relief  map  of  the  state  made 
by  Professor  Shedd  of  the  State  College,  a photograph  of  which  is  repro- 
duced in  Figure  2,  is  of  interest.  This  makes  plainer  also  the  conditions 
and  limitations  of  the  agricultural  soils  of  the  state  as  described  in  the  sum- 
marized statement  below. 

For  the  purposes  of  discussion  of  the  character  of  the  soil  the  state  may 
be  roughly  divided  into  several  districts,  as  follows : The  Puget  Sound  dis- 
trict, including  all  the  part  of  the  state  west  of  the  Cascade  Mountains 
which  is  drained  into  Puget  Sound;  the  South-West  section,  which  includes 
all  the  rest  of  the  state  lying  west  of  the  Cascades,  and  is  drained  either 
directly  into  the  Pacific  Ocean  or  into  the  Columbia  River;  the  central, 
chiefly  irrigated,  section,  which  includes  Klickitat,  Benton,  Yakima,  and 
Kittitas  Counties;  the  Okanogan  section,  including  Chelan,  Okanogan, 
Ferry,  Stevens,  and  the  north  half  of  Spokane  Counties ; the  Palouse  sec- 
tion, which  comprises  Whitman  County  and  the  South  half  of  Spokane 
County;  the  Big  Bend  section,  comprising  Douglas,  Lincoln,  Adams,  and 
Franklin  Counties;  and  the  South-East  section,  including  all  that  part  of 
the  state  lying  south  of  the  Snake  River. 


The  Puget  Sound  District. 

The  agricultural  lands  of  this  district  lie  in  the  flats  bordering  upon 
Puget  Sound  and  in  the  valleys  of  the  rivers  which  flow  into  it.  The  re- 
maining lands  of  this  section  are  mountainous  and  heavily  timbered,  and 
not,  as  yet,  to  be  considered  as  agricultural  soils.  The  flats  are  level  lands 
which  lie  very  low,  only  a few  feet  above  sea-level  and  in  some  cases,  even 
below  the  level  of  high  tide.  These  latter  are  protected  from  the  salt  water 
of  the  ocean  by  dykes  which  have  been  built  for  that  purpose.  Such  lands 
form  the  celebrated  “reclaimed  tide  flats.”  Both  these  reclaimed  flats  and 
the  other  flats  lying  at  a higher  level  are  made  up  of  sand  brought  in  by  the 
tides,  mixed  with  alluvial  material  washed  down  from  the  higher  lands. 
They  are,  therefore,  usually  of  very  fine  physical  condition  and  apt  to  be 
very  fertile.  The  higher  flats  are  particularly  rich  in  decaying  organic 
matter,  or  humus,  and  are  apt  on  that  account  to  be  “sour”  because  of  the 
excess  of  organic  acids  which  they  contain.  In  some  localities  certain 
small  areas  of  soils  are  found  which  show  very  peculiar  composition,  prob- 
ably because  of  old  lake  beds,  old  swamps,  or  other  local  features.  Con- 
cerning these  it  is  obviously  impossible  to  make  general  statements. 

The  river  valley  lands  of  this  section  may  be  divided  into  three  types ; 
the  low  land  lying  in  the  bottoms  of  the  valleys,  commonly  called  “alder- 
bottom  land”  ; the  upper  benches  lying  at  some  distance  back  from  the 
rivers  and  a higher  level  and  sloping  up  toward  the  hillsides,  usually 
spoken  of  as  “red-fir  upland  soils”;  and  the  timbered  ridges,  a few  of 
which  have  been  cleared  and  are  being  cultivated.  The  soil  of  the  ridges 
and  hills  of  this  section  is,  for  the  most  part,  a stiff,  heavy,  reddish  clay, 


Figure  i — Showing  distribution  of  samples  analyzed  in  the  soil  survey 


Figure  2— Map  showing  contour  of  the  state.  Agricultural  lands  are  in  the  valleys  and  table  lands. 


Bulletin  No.  85 — Washington  Soils 


5i 


often  quite  gravelly  and  frequently  containing  considerable  amounts  of 
poorly  decayed  forest  residues.  Such  soils  are  usually  in  poor  physical  con- 
dition, difficult  to  work,  and  not  very  fertile.  The  chief  plant  residues 
which  they  contain  are  the  cones,  needles,  etc.,  of  fir,  and  pine  trees,  which 
decay  very  slowly  and  form  very  poor  humus.  Very  little  can  be  done  in 
the  way  of  green  manuring,  or  plowing  under  of  clover  crops,  and  commer- 
cial fertilizers  are  about  the  only  remedy  for  the  infertile  condition.  This 
poor  quality  of  the  soils  of  the  ridges  makes  it  appear  that  no  great  advant- 
age can  be  gained  by  further  clearing  and  plowing  up  of  these  timbered 
areas.  The  red-fir  uplands,  or  second  bench  lands,  appear  to  have  been 
formed  largely  by  the  broken  rock,  gravel,  and  other  debris  which  has 
come  down  from  the  hillsides.  In  the  natural  state  they  are  usually  heavily 
timbered.  When  cleared  of  timber  they  become  covered  with  immense 
growths  of  ferns.  When  plowed,  they  are  usually  very  gravelly,  light  in 
color,  and  apt  to  be  not  very  fertile,  except  where  the  land  has  been  burned 
over  and  a considerable  quantity  of  ashes  left.  They  usually  contain  only 
limited  amounts  of  humus,  because  of  the  poverty  of  this  in  the  higher 
lands  from  which  they  came.  Clovers  of  various  kinds  often  make  very 
good  growth  on  these  soils  and  their  fertility  can  usually  be  very  mater- 
ially improved  by  frequent  turning  under  of  some  clover  crop.  The  alder- 
bottom  lands  usually  consist  of  a layer  of  rich  black  soil  of  varying  thick- 
ness, overlaying  a sub  soil  consisting  of  very  gravelly  clay  mixed  with  large 
stones.  These  soils  are  usually  well-watered  and  in  ordinary  seasons  yield 
immense  crops,  particularly  of  hay  and  roots.  They  have  very  poor  water- 
holding capacity,  however,  and  in  seasons  of  drought  dry  out  very  rapidly 
and  the  crops  burn  badly.  These  bottom  lands  are  usually  heavily  charged 
with  decaying  vegetable  matter,  sometimes  being  very  peaty  in  character. 
They  are,  therefore,  usually  well  stocked  with  nitrogen.  As  a rule  they 
contain  more  potash  and  less  phosphoric  acid  than  the  upland  soils. 

From  the  standpoint  of  chemical  composition,  the  most  striking  char- 
acteristic of  the  soils  of  this  region  is  the  very  low  percentage  of  lime  which 
they  contain.  This  is  doubtless  the  result  of  the  heavy  rainfall  and  exces- 
sive leaching  out  of  the  lime  in  these  soils.  It  results  in  a very  poor  phys- 
ical condition  of  the  clay  upland  soils,  making  them  stiff  and  inclined  to 
bake  hard  when  dry,  and  in  frequent  cases  of  acidity  or  “sourness”  of  the 
lower  land  soils.  Except  in  those  localities  near  the  lime  rock,  which  is 
found  in  one  of  the  two  localities  in  this  district,  there  are  very  few  soils 
which  would  not  be  likely  to  be  materially  improved  in  their  physical  con- 
dition or  their  fertility,  or  both,  by  a liberal  application  of  lime.  The  potash 
content  of  the  soils  of  this  region  is  likewise  very  low,  particularly  in  the 
uplands.  This  is  true  throughout  that  part  of  the  state  lying  west  of  the 
Cascade  Mountains  and  is  due  to  the  long-continued  leaching  of  the  soil  by 
the  heavy  rain- fall.  Potash  fertilizers  are  now  in  extensive  use  in  these 
districts,  and  will  probably  be  increasingly  necessary.  The  beneficial  effect 
of  wood-ashes  which  is  so  frequently  noticed  in  this  part  of  the  state  is 
doubtless  due  to  the  lime  and  potash  which  they  supply.  Phosphoric  acid 
is  usually  present  in  sufficient  quantities  in  the  upland  soils,  but  likely  to 
be  deficient  in  the  lower  lands.  Nitrogen  is  present  in  abundance  in  the 
bottom  land  soils  but  is  often  deficient  in  the  upper  gravelly  or  clayey  soils, 
particularly  if  they  have  grown  large  forests  of  fir  and  pine. 

The  Southwestern  Section, 

This  district  is  almost  wholly  made  up  of  broken  or  rolling  hills,  with 
the  exception  of  the  extreme  northern  end  of  it,  where  are  found  several 
open  level  prairies.  The  agricultural  lands  comprise  these  open  prairies  and 
the  valleys  of  the  rivers.  The  river  valleys  are,  for  the  most  part,  somewhat 


52 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


broader  and  the  hills  surrounding  them  less  abrupt  than  in  the  Puget  Sound 
district.  The  soils  of  these  valleys  are  wholly  different  in  type  from  those 
of  the  Peget  Sound  district  also,  since  the  latter  are  produced  from  glacial 
drift  brought  in  from  other  localities,  while  the  soils  of  this  district  were 
produced  almost  entirely  by  the  decomposition  of  the  rocks  of  the  hills  of 
the  district  itself. 

The  open  prairies  of  i his  section  consist  of  immense  level  deposits  of 
coarse  sand  and  gravel  formed  by  the  melting  of  the  glaciers  which  at  one 
time  flowed  through  the  great  Puget  Sound  depression.  These  deposits  are 
so  very  gravelly  as  to  possess  only  very  slight  agricultural  value,  but  bor- 
dering upon  them  are  considerable  areas  of  tillable  land,  and  in  several 
places  in  them  there  are  depressions  of  greater  or  less  extent  forming  more 
or  less  marshy  areas  which  when  properly  drained  become  very  rich  farm- 
ing lands.  The  parts  of  the  gravelly  prairies  which  are  cultivated  are  usu- 
ally inclined  to  be  deficient  in  all  the  essential  elements  of  plant  food,  with 
the  possible  exception  of  phosphoric  acid.  The  marshy  lands  are  almost 
invariably  “sour”  because  of  excess  of  decaying  organic  matter  and  lack  of 
lime. 

The  river  valleys  show  a great  variety  of  types  of  soil.  In  some,  de- 
pressed areas  which  were  formerly  old  river  beds  and  later  swamps  filled 
with  vegetable  debris  are  occasionally  found,  which  result  in  very  peaty 
soils — some  even  containing  so  high  a proportion  of  vegetable  matter  as  to 
be  practically  worthless  for  crop  production.  A very  common  type  of  river 
bottom  soil  is  a heavy,  black  clay,  commonly  known  as  “beaver-dam”  bot- 
tom lands.  These  are  alluvial  drifts  brought  down  from  up  the  streams  by 
the  current  at  times  of  high  water.  They  contain  little  or  no  sand  but  are 
essentially  fine  clay  mixed  with  comparatively  large  quantities  of  well  de- 
cayed organic  matter.  They  contain  very  large  stores  of  nitrogen  and  are 
usually  fairly  well  stocked  with  phosphoric  acid,  but  are  not  very  liberally 
supplied  with  potash,  and  frequently  are  “sour,”  the  supply  of  lime  being 
insufficient  to  neutralize  the  excess  of  organic  acids  present.  These  are  or- 
dinarily very  productive  soils,  but  have  often  been  found  to  yield  very 
profitable  returns  to  fertilizing  with  potash  and  lime.  Occasionally  sandy 
bars  deposited  at  some  abrupt  turn  of  a river  are  found,  but  these  are  not  of 
sufficient  extentto  be  considered  of  much  general  importance. 

The  higher  bench  lands  of  this  district  are  essentially  clayey  in  char- 
acter, but  exhibit  a great  many  different  types.  Perhaps  the  most  common 
is  the  “shot-clay,”  so  called  because  of  its  tendency  to  break  into  small 
hard  pellets  when  dry.  This  type  is  usually  a strong  soil,  containing  ordi- 
narily a fairly  good  supply  of  phosphoric  acid  and  nitrogen,  but  apt  to  be 
somewhat  deficient  in  potash.  The  percentage  of  lime  is  rarely  very  high, 
but  seems  in  most  cases  to  be  sufficient  for  immediate  needs,  as  several  ex- 
periments in  liming  this  type  of  soil  have  not  given  any  strikingly  benefi- 
cial results.  It  seems  probable  that  the  physical  condition,  and  the  fertility 
also,  of  this  shot-clay  would  be  improved  by  green  manuring.  Another 
common  type  of  bench  land  soil  of  this  section  is  a rather  heavy,  yellowish 
to  brownish,  clay  loam,  found  chiefly  in  the  wide,  open  valleys.  This  is 
nearly  always  fairly  well  supplied  with  all  the  essential  elements  of  plant 
food,  but  frequently  does  not  contain  as  high  a percentage  of  lime  as  is  de- 
sirable in  clay  soils,  hence,  is  more  or  less  heavy  and  difficult  to  work  when 
wet  and  inclined  to  bake  when  dry.  This  type  is  especially  susceptible  to 
improvement  by  plowing  under  a green  clover  crop.  Vetches  are  admir- 
ably adapted  for  this  purpose. 

The  hill  lands  of  this  district  consist  chiefly  of  a reddish,  or  yellowish, 
clay,  containing  as  a rule,  very  little  coarse  sand  or  gravel.  They  are  richer 
in  phosphoric  acid  than  any  other  type  of  soil  west  of  the  Cascade  Moun- 


Bulletin  No.  85 — Washington  Soils 


53 


tains  in  this  state.  They  usually  contain  a rather  poor  supply  of  humus 
and  nitrogen  and  are  not  very  well  stocked  with  potash.  With  the  excep- 
tion of  their  phosphoric  acid  content  they  are  the  poorest  soils  of  this  sec- 
tion, and  will  probably  require  the  most  extensive  use  of  fertilizers.  Barn- 
yard manure  is  a particularly  valuable  fertilizer  for  this  type  of  soil,  since  it 
supplies  the  humus  which  is  needed  both  as  a means  of  rendering  available 
the  plant  food  and  to  improve  the  physical  condition  of  the  soil. 

A very  striking  characteristic  of  all  the  soils  of  this  district  is  the  very 
high  percentage  of  iron  oxide  and  alumina  which  they  contain,  amounting 
oftentimes  to  twenty  per  cent  or  more  of  the  dry  soil.  This  indicates  that 
the  soils  are  almost  wholly  clay  or  decomposed  rock  of  the  feldspar  or  gran- 
ite type,  and  contains  very  little  sand  or  decomposed  quartz.  Such  soils  are 
likely  to  prove  of  high  and  very  permanent  fertility  if  properly  tilled, but  are 
generally  very  difficult  to  cultivate.  They  require  large  amounts  of  humus 
to  keep  the  fertility  in  available  form,  to  make  the  clay  able  to  absorb  and 
hold  moisture,  and  to  prevent  puddling  when  wet  and  baking  when  dry. 
The  best  treatment  for  such  soils  is  one  which  will  frequently  add  to  the 
soil  some  organic  matter,  either  in  the  form  of  barnyard  manure,  or  a green 
leguminous  crop  plowed  under.  Temporary  stimulation  and  improvement 
in  physical  condition  may  often  be  secured  by  heavy  liming  of  these  soils. 

The  Central  Section. 

The  rain  fall  is  lower  than  in  any  other  part  of  the  state  and  farming  is 
carried  on  almost  entirely  by  irrigation.  Some  of  the  uplands  in  the  south- 
ern part  and  the  lands  lying  toward  the  foothills  of  the  Cascade  Mountains 
receive  sufficient  rainfall  to  permit  cultivation  without  irrigation.  All  these 
uplands  are  well  supplied  with  potash  and  lime,  except  those  lying  well  up 
on  the  sides  of  the  mountains  at  an  elevation  of  3000  feet  or  more.  Above 
this  line  the  soils  are  of  the  same  general  type  as  the  hill  soils  of  the  South- 
west section  on  the  other  side  of  the  Cascades.  The  lower  foot  hill  soils  of 
this  section  are  rich  in  all  the  essential  elements  of  plant  food,  and  appear 
to  be  of  great  permanent  fertility.  As  the  distance  from  the  mountains  in- 
creases, however,  the  supply  of  humus,  nitrogen,  and  phosphoric  acid  de- 
creases, and  the  proportion  of  infertile  sand  increases  until  at  the  extreme 
eastern  part  of  the  district  the  amount  of  humus  and  nitrogen  is  less  than 
that  considered  by  soil  experts  as  necessary  for  plant  growth.  Conditions 
are  very  favorable  for  the  plant  food  to  be  largely  in  available  form,  how- 
ever, and  whenever  sufficient  rainfall  can  be  had  crops  are  successfully 
grown.  Soils  of  this  class  cannot  exhibit  any  great  permanence  of  fertil- 
ity, however,  unless  steps  are  taken  to  increase  their  humus  content. 

The  valley,  or  irrigated,  soils  of  this  section  consist  chiefly  of  a layer  of 
sandy  soil,  of  the  so-called  “sage  brush”  type,  overlaying  a sub-soil  of  coarse 
gravel  through  which  run  layers  of  “hard-pan”  or  of  a white  volcanic  ash 
locally  known  as  “cement.”  This  soil  is  obvioucly  sedimentary  in  its  char- 
acter and  was  undoubtedly  deposited  in  the  bed  of  an  old  lake  which  once 
covered  this  region.  Chemically,  this  soil  is  very  rich  in  lime,  but  much 
poorer  in  potash  and  nitrogen  than  other  soils  of  Eastern  Washington.  The 
abundance  of  lime  and  other  conditions  are  favorable  for  rendering  the 
plant  food  easily  available,  and  when  watered  the  soils  show  very  great  fer- 
tility. This  fertility  cannot  be  permanently  maintained,  however,  without 
the  addition  of  some  humus-forming  material.  Fortunately,  legumes  can  be 
grown  with  the  greatest  ease,  and  when  plowed  under  will  supply  this  lack. 
Potash  fertilizers  will  probably  be  required  in  the  not  far  distant  future, 
particularly  for  fruit  and  vegetable  crops.  The  occurrence  of  alkali  in  the 
soils  of  this  region  and  treatment  for  it  have  been  discussed  in  Bulletin  No. 
49  of  this  Station. 


54 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


The  Okanogan  District. 

This  district  comprises  all  that  part  of  the  state  lying  north  of  the  Co- 
lumbia River,  from  Lake  Chelan  and  the  Cascade  Mountains  to  the  Idaho 
line.  The  agricultural  resources  of  this  part  of  the  state  have  not  as  yet 
been  fully  developed  and  many  fertile  valleys  which  will  in  time  become 
profitable  agricultural  lands  are  as  yet  uninhabited  wilds.  The  comparative 
newness  of  the  agricultural  development  of  this  district  has  made  it  impos- 
sible to  secure  a very  complete  survey  of  its  soils.  Some  general  conclus- 
ions may  be  drawn,  however.  The  topography  of  the  country  is  that  of  a 
very  hilly,  rolling  tableland,  quite  similar  in  many  respects  to  that  in  the 
Southwestern  section  of  the  state.  The  rocks  of  the  hills  from  which  the 
soils  are  derived  are  also  largely  granitic  in  type,  making  the  prevailing  soil 
types  clayey  ones.  The  clays  of  this  section  differ  from  those  of  the  South- 
west section,  however,  in  that  they  must  have  not  been  subjected  to  so 
heavy  rainfall  and  leaching  as  those  under  the  West-side  conditions  and  are, 
therefore,  usually  richer  in  lime  and  potash.  This  gives  them  a much  more 
friable  character,  and  greater  fertility,  because  of  better  availibility  of  the 
plant  food  which  they  contain.  Peaty  meadows  of  the  same  general  type 
as  found  west  of  the  Cascades  are  found  in  many  places  in  this  section. 
These  are,  however,  practically  the  only  soils  of  this  section  which  are 
likely  to  require  liming. 

In  the  western  part  of  the  district  the  river  valley  soils  are  usually  made 
up  of  large  proportions  of  a very  friable  clay  mixed  with  considerable  fine 
sand,  making  a combination  very  easily  cultivated  and  of  high  fertility.  In 
the  eastern  part  development  has  been  somewhat  more  advanced,  and  farms 
have  been  extended  up  to  some  of  the  upper  benches  and  higher  hillsides. 
These  are  usually  found  to  be  somewhat  less  fertile  than  the  bottom  lands, 
being  lower  in  humus  and  more  difficult  to  work.  The  valleys  of  Southern 
Stevens  County  show  a heavy  clay  soil,  inclined  to  be  deficient  in  nitrogen 
and  humus,  but  well  supplied  with  lime  and  potash.  Occasional  very  cal- 
careous (that  is,  containing  high  percentages  of  carbonate  of  lime)  soils  are 
found.  In  fact,  a high  lime  content  may  be  said  to  be  the  most  striking 
characteristic  of  the  soils  of  this  district.  Soils  of  this  type  are  almost  uni- 
versally considered  as  having  high  crop-producing  capacity,  and  it  would 
appear  that  further  development  of  this  section  will  add  much  to  the  agri- 
cultural resources  of  the  state. 


The  Palouse  District 

The  prevailing,  and  practically  the  only,  type  of  soil  in  this  district  is  a 
decomposed  basalt,  a fine  loam  of  high  fertility,  easy  tillage  and  great  water- 
holding capacity.  The  land  is  rolling,  and  the  soil  on  the  south-hill  slopes 
is  for  the  most  part  shallow  and  inclined  to  be  clayey,  but  elsewhere  deep 
and  rich.  The  proportion  of  clay  is  greatest  towards  the  hill  tops.  Humus 
increases  as  we  go  down  the  slopes,  and  is  highest  in  the  valleys,  forming  a 
rich  black  loam  with  occasional  patches  of  “adobe.” 

This  Palouse  type  of  soil  is  very  rich  in  potash  and  phosphoric  acid, 
and  fairly  well  supplied  with  lime.  The  supply  of  humus  and  nitrogen  is 
only  moderate,  and  in  the  western  part  of  the  district  is  quite  low.  The 
present  system  of  almost  exclusive  cropping  to  cereals  is  making  large  de- 
mands upon  the  stock  of  humus,  which  will  have  to  be  counteracted  by  some 
svstem  of  restoration  of  humus  to  the  soil  in  the  not  far  distant  future.  All 
other  elements  of  plant  food  are  present  in  practically  inexhaustible  supply, 
and  with  proper  attention  to  the  humus  needs  this  soil  will  doubtless  main- 
tain its  reputation  for  high  fertility  indefinitely. 


Bulletin  No.  85 — Washington  Soils 


55 


The  Big  Bend  Section. 

In  its  general  topography  this  section  is  a level  or  slightly  rolling  plat- 
eau, cut  by  numerous  river  beds  with  almost  perpendicular  walls  of  basalt 
rock,  known  as  coulees.  Some  of  these  coulees  contain  flowing  streams, 
others  have  streams  in  which  running  water  is  found  during  the  winter  and 
early  spring  months,  and  still  others  are  dry  beds  of  old  rivers,  which  have 
now  ceased  to  flow  because  of  decreased  rain-fall  or  because  of  a change  in 
their  course  to  some  other  line  of  flow.  Many  of  these  coulees  are  wide 
enough  so  that  a certain  amount  of  tillable  land  is  found  in  them.  This 
soil  is  moist,  usually  well  supplied  with  humus  and,  particularly  in  the 
northwestern  part,  shows  a composition  very  similar  to  that  of  the  river  val- 
leys of  the  western  part  of  the  Okanogan  section.  Most  of  the  agricultural 
lands  of  this  section  are  found  upon  the  rolling  table-land,  however.  In 
their  general  type,  the  upland  soils  or  so-called  wheat-lands  of  this  section 
are  a decomposed  basalt,  very  similar  to  that  of  the  Palouse  section,  but 
carrying  less  humus  in  direct  proportion  as  the  average  annual  rainfall  of 
the  locality  becomes  less. 

In  the  southwestern  part  of  the  Big  Bend  district  there  is  a very  large 
area  where  the  annual  rain-fall  is  so  slight  that  only  sage-brush  and  small 
patches  of  the  hardier  bunch  grasses  can  grow.  Here  the  soils  are  very 
sandy  and  contain  only  slight  amounts  of  decayed  organic  matter.  They 
are  well  supplied  with  the  mineral  constituents  of  plant  food,  however,  and 
if  supplied  with  sufficient  water  will  produce  abundant  crops.  With  a 
proper  supply  of  water  to  grow  leguminous  crops  their  humus  content  could 
be  very  easily  built  up,  hence  if  any  feasible  way  of  watering  these  soils  can 
be  devised  they  may  become  very  valuable  agricultural  lands.  An  abund- 
ance of  water  will  be  necessary  at  first,  however,  since  the  soils  are  so  sandy 
and  contain  so  little  humus  that  they  have  very  little  water-holding  capacity. 

In  the  regions  of  sufficient  rain-fall  the  soils  of  this  district  are  well  sup- 
plied with  the  mineral  elements  of  plant  food,  lime  especially  being  present 
in  large  supply,  particularly  in  the  northwestern  part  where  a surplus  of 
carbonate  of  lime  is  often  found  giving  a tendency  to  form  hardpan.  With 
a sufficient  supply  of  humus,  therefore,  these  soils  will  possess  a very  high 
and  very  permanent  fertility.  Unfortunately,  the  natural  supply  of  humus 
is  low,  and  in  many  localities  the  soils  are  already  showing  a strong  tendency 
to  run  together  when  damp  and  form  crusts  when  dry,  a sure  evidence  of 
deficiency  in  humus.  With  a system  of  soil  cultivation  which  will  introduce 
some  humus-forming  materials  at  rather  frequent  intervals,  these  soils  prom- 
ise very  high  fertility  for  a long  time  to  come,  but  without  such  treatment 
very  diminished  crops  will  probably  result  in  the  not  far  distant  future. 


The  Southeastern  Section* 

The  agricultural  lands  of  this  section  are  of  two  general  types,  the  light 
volcanic  ash  soil  derived  from  the  decomposition  of  the  rocks  of  the  extreme 
edge  of  the  basaltic  overflow  of  the  state,  and  a heavier  loam  bordering  on 
the  foothills  of  the  Blue  Mountains  and  resulting  from  the  decomposition  of 
the  rocks  of  this  range  of  mountains.  The  line  of  demarcation  between 
these  two  types  is  very  irregular  because  of  the  irregularities  in  topography 
which  limited  the  edge  of  the  lava  overflow,  but  is  fairly  sharp  and  well  de- 
fined. In  the  valleys  of  the  streams  the  nature  of  the  soil  is,  of  course,  much 
changed  from  these  original  types  of  sedimentation,  etc.,  but  the  upland 
soils  fall  very  clearly  into  one  of  the  other  of  these  types.  The  Bine  Moun- 
tain loam  is  a soil  rich  in  all  the  essential  elements  of  fertility,  especially  in 


56 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


potash.  The  percentage  of  humus  and  nitrogen  is  high  near  the  foothills 
of  the  mountains,  but  decreases  as  the  distance  from  them  increases  and  the 
resulting  annual  rainfall  decreases.  The  soils  of  the  north  and  west  slopes 
of  these  mountains  are  probably  the  richest  distinct  type  to  be  found  in  this 
state.  On  the  eastern  slope  in  the  extreme  southeast  part  of  the  state  the 
soils  contain  less  humus  and  are  more  clayey  in  their  nature.  They  are  very 
much  lower  in  phosphoric  acid  also,  their  most  characteristic  feature  as  far 
as  chemical  composition  is  concerned  being  a probable  deficiency  in  this 
constituent. 

The  light  volcanic  ash  soils  of  the  northern  and  western  parts  of  this 
section  resemble  those  of  the  western  part  of  the  Palouse  and  Big  Bend 
sections.  Phj7sically.  they  are  very  finely  divided,  forming  an  almort  im- 
palpable dust  when  dry,  but  possessed  of  very  great  water-holding  power 
when  wet.  Chemically,  they  are  very  abundantly  aupplied  with  potash, 
lime,  and  phosphoric  acid,  but  very  low  in  humus  and  nitrogen.  What  was 
said  in  regard  to  the  soils  of  the  Big  Bend  section  applies  equally  as  well  to 
the  soils  of  this  part  of  the  Southeastern' section. 


General  Conclusions. 

Even  the  most  casual  glance  at  the  results  of  this  soil  survey  will  show  the  extreme 
variations  in  the  kinds  of  soil  which  are  found  in  this  state.  Practically  every  type  known 
to  soil  students  is  represented  somewhere  in  this  state.  We  have  every  variation  from  al- 
most pure  sand  to  pure  clay  on  the  one  hand  and  to  pure  peat  on  the  other.  In  other 
localities  special  types, "such  as  marls,  glacial  drift  of  several  kinds,  etc.,  etc.,  are  found. 
These  variations  in  type  are  accompanied  by  almost  the  widest  conceivable  variations  in 
chemical  composition.  The  extreme  variations  in  the  percentages  of  the  several  constitu- 
ents which  have  been  found  in  the  samples  of  3oils  which  we  have  analyzed  are  shown  in 
the  following  statement: 


Insoluble  silica.... 
Hydrated  silica.... 

Soluble  silica 

Potash 

,, 3.014  — 1 

..0  157  — : 

0.002  — 

0.000  — 

Soda 

0.027  — 

Time 

0.005  — ; 

Magnesia 

Iron  Oxide 

Alumina 

0.000  — 

o.i8i  — : 

0.148  — : 

Phos.  Pentoxide... 
Sulphur  Trioxide. 
Carbon  Dioxide.... 

0,000  — 

o.ooo  — : 

Humus 

0.084  — , 

Nitrogen 

trace  — 

In  addition  to  the  discussion  of  the 

soils  in  the 

90.716  per  cent. 
18.524  per  cent. 
0.938  per  cent. 
0.829  per  cent. 
1.632  per  cent. 
36.009  per  cent. 
4.830  per  cent. 
16.368  per  cent. 
14.898  per  cent. 
0.409  per  cent. 
0.694  per  cent. 
28.998  per  cent. 
51.000  per  cent. 
2.660  per  cent. 


above  the  following  general  statements  made  in  Bulletin  No.  55  may  profitably  be  repeated: 

“The  soils  of  the  western,  central  and  eastern  portions  of  the  state  show  marked  dif- 
ferences in  their  percentages  of  potash  and  lime.  The  potash  content  is  generally  greatest 
in  the  eastern  part  and  least  in  the  western,  while  in  the  central  portion  the  amount  is 
intermediate.  The  lime  content  is  greatest  in  the  central  part,  where  the  minimum  amount 
of  rain  falls.  It  is  least  in  the  western  part,  especially  in  those  portions  where  the  rainfall 
is  forty  inches  or  more.  An  intermediate  amount  is  found  in  that  portion  where  the  rain- 
fall varies  from  eighteen  to  thirty  inches. 

“In  many  of  the  samples  from  Eastern  Washington  the  amount  of  soda  exceeds  that 
of  potash.  This  is  unusual  (except  in  alkali  soils)  and  is  doubtless  due  to  the  basaltic  ori- 
gin of  the  soil,  and  to  the  climatic  conditions  attending  the  soil-forming  period.  In  gener- 
al, the  wide  variations  in  composition  between  the  virgin  soils  in  different  sections  of  the 
state  are  due  to  (1)  origin;  (2)  climatic  conditions  both  present  and  past;  (3)  past  vegetation. 

“Fertilizers  containing  lime  and  potash  will  be  found  most  generally  beneficial  to  soils 
west  of  the  Cascade  Mountains. 

“In  the  irrigated  regions  humus-forming  materials  with  added  potash  would  in  most 
cases  best  meet  the  soil  needs. 

“When  fertilization  is  required  in  Eastern  Washington  it  is  probable  that  humus-form- 
ing material  and,  in  some  cases,  lime,  would  give  maximum  benefit  at  the  minimum  cost.’’ 


V ' 


THE  STATE  COLLEGE  OF  WASHINGTON 


Agricultural  Experiment  Station 

PULLMAN,  WASHINGTON 


DEPARTMENT  OF  ZOOLOGY 


The  Codling  Moth  in  1907 

By  A.  L.  MELANDER 

Assisted  by  R.  E.  TRUMBLE 


Bulletin  No.  86 

J 90  8 


<9  All  bulletins  of  this  station  sent  free  to  citizens  of  the  state  on  application 
to  the  Director. 


BOARD  OF  CONTROL 


Peter  McGregor,  President  -----  Colfax 

F.  J.  Barnard,  Treasurer Seattle 

J.  J.  Browne  - - - - - - - Spokane 

Dr.  J.  S.  Anderson Asotin 

Lke  A.  Johnson Sunnyside 

E A.  Bryan,  Secretary  ex  officio  - - - - Pullman 

President  of  the  College. 


STATION  STAFF. 

R.  W.  Thatcher,  M.  A., Director  and  Chemist 

E.  E.  Elliott,  M.  S.,  Agriculturist  and  Supt.  Farmers’  Institutes 
Elton  Fulmer,  M.  A.,  - - State  Chemist 

S.  B.  Nelson,  D.  V.  M., Veterinarian 

O.  E-  Waller,  Ph.  M., Irrigation  Engineer 

R.  K.  Beattie,  A.  M., Botanist 

Walter  S.  Thornber,  M.S. Horticulturist 

A.  E.  Melander,  M.  S. Entomologist 

George  Severance,  B.  S., Agronomist 

C.  W.  Lawrence,  B.  S. Cerealist 

W.  A.  Einklater,  B.  S.  A.  - - - - Animal  Husbandman 

H.  B.  Berry,  B.  S., Soil  Physicist 

W.  E.  Ralston,  D.  V.  M. Assistant  Veterinarian 

H.  R.  Watkins,  M.  S. Assistant  Chemist 

A.  G.  Craig,  B.  S. Assistant  Horticulturist 

W.  T.  Shaw,  B.  S. Assistant  Zoologist 


Ufie  Codling  MotK  in  1907* 

By  A.  L.  MELANDER 
Assisted  by  R.  E.  TRUMBLE 


For  a number  of  years  the  Washington  State  Experi- 
ment Station  has  been  studying  the  codling  moth.  In  the 
course  of  the  investigation  arsenate  of  lead 
HISTORICAL,  was  found  to  give  best  satisfaction  as  a 
spray,  and  the  usual  number  of  sprayings 
necessary  was  found  to  be  three  or  four.  Experiments  were 
carried  on  in  the  Yakima  Valley,  the  Spokane  country,  and 
on  the  Snake  River  bluffs.  In  1907  the  campaign  was  ex- 
tended to  Walla  Walla  and  Wenatchee.  Thus  we  have  now 
carried  on  spraying  demonstrations  in  practically  all  the 
commercial  orchard  localities  of  the  state. 

The  main  purpose  of  this  year’s  work  was  to  demon- 
strate how  easily  the  codling  moth  could  be  kept  in  check  by 
proper  spraying  methods.  At  the  same 
OBJECTS  IN  1907.  time  tests  were  made  of  the  value  of 
the  dust  spray  and  of  the  newer  brands 
of  arsenate  of  lead.  For  the  demonstration  several  badly 
infested  orchards  were  taken  in  charge  and  were  sprayed 
entirely  by  us.  Gasolene  power  sprayers  were  used  in  all 
liquid  spraying. 

In  general  spraying  at  Walla  Walla  is  carried  on  in  a 
desultory  way.  Many  of  the  growers  are  using  methods  of 
a decade  ago  with  only  partial  success, 
WALLA  WALLA  and  have  become  disgusted  with  the  cod- 
CONDITIONS.  ling  moth  outlook.  In  the  warm  Walla 
Walla  valley  the  codling  moth  breeds  pro- 
lificly.  It  seems  certain  from  this  year’s  observations  that 
the  growers  there  have  three  broods  to  contend  with.  Many 
orchards  are  abandoned  or  are  being  cut  down  for  fire  wood. 

The  orchard  of  E.  Lennon  in  the  city  of  Walla  Walla  was 

* Contribution  from  Zoology  Laboratory  of  the  State  College  of  Washington 


4 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


selected  as  an  extreme  example  of  an  abandoned  orchard. 

Originally  this  place  produced 
LENNONS’  ORCHARD.  20,000  boxes  of  apples  a year,  but 

because  of  the  codling  moth  and 
the  San  Jose  scale  the  major  part  of  the  orchard  had  been 
cut  down  and  disposed  of  as  fire  wood  in  order  to  use  the 
ground  for  growing  wheat.  At  the  time  of  our  visit  but  150 
trees  remained  and  of  these  fifty  had  been  sold  when  the  or- 
chard was  divided  into  town  lots. 

The  trees  selected  for  spraying  are  among  the  oldest  in 
the  valley,  some  being  twenty,  others  nearly  thirty  years  of 
age.  As  they  have  not  been  pruned  for  years,  they  have 
grown  far  out  of  reach  of  the  spray  nozzle.  The  ground  is 
uncultivated  and  this  year  was  sown  to  wheat,  but  close  to 
the  trees  the  wild  sweet  clover  as  well  as  alfalfa  and  white 
clover  of  former  plantings  were  growing  rank.  In  the  midst 
of  the  orchard  is  a large  shed  wherein  had  been  piled  about 
one  thousand  boxes  of  wormy  apples  the  winter  previous. 
During  the  summer  the  fruit  was  not  thinned;  the  close 
clusters  of  apples  were  so  numerous  as  to  bend  the  un- 
trimmed branches  to  the  ground.  All  in  all  a more  severe 
test  of  codling  moth  spraying  could  not  be  imagined. 

As  the  trees  were  thickly  incrusted  with  scale  a prelim- 
inary step  was  to  have  the  orchard  sprayed  with  sulphur- 
lime.  The  efficiency  of  this  treatment  was  apparent  in  the 
absolute  extinction  of  this  pest. 

Four  sprayings  of  arsenate  of  lead  (one  pound  to  forty 
gallons)  were  given  for  the  codling  moth  with  the  most  grat- 
ifying results,  as  the  following  table  shows.  The  dates  of 
the  applications  were,  May  9,  June  28,  July  31  and  August  31. 


Table  I. 


Variety 

How  Sprayed 

Picked 

Windfalls 

PerCt. 

Clean 

Wormy 

Clean 

Wormy 

Good 

1.  Arkansas  Black 

Liquid,  1:40 

700 

8 

98.9 

2.  Rome  Beauty 

1437 

10 

186 

4 

99  2 

3.  Arkansas  Black 

Dust 

232 

106 

250 

500 

60 

4.  Rome  Beauty 

Dust 

236 

09 

19 

100 

60 

5.  Winesap 

Not  Sprayed 

17 

250 

1 

250 

3.4 

Bulletin  No.  86 — The  Codling  Moth  in  igoy 


5 


Partial  counts,  including  apples  from  all  levels  of  the 
tree,  were  made  of  two  Arkansas  Black  and  three  Rome 
Beauty  trees  taken  at  random.  These  counts  represent  a 
just  average  of  the  orchard,  and  as  they  show  99  per  cent,  of 
the  fruit  free  from  worms,  they  afford  a striking  contrast  to 
the  three  per  cent,  clean  of  the  unsprayed  trees. 

A dozen  trees  were  sprayed  with  a dust  sprayer  to  test 
the  efficiency  of  this  method  as  compared  with  liquid  spray- 
ing. Dust  spraying  has  become 
THE  DUST  SPRAY.  quite  popular  in  the  Yakima  valley, 

and  has  had  many  advocates.  During 
our  tests  of  1905  the  dust  spray  was  given  a competitive 
trial.  It  was  then  decided  that  a mixture  of  one  part  of 
Paris  green  to  twenty  of  lime  afforded  the  best  mixture, 
but  that  the  dust  spray  was  somewhat  inferior  to  arsenate 
of  lead.  The  results  of  the  former  year  are  corroborated  in 
a striking  manner  by  the  60  per  cent,  of  good  fruit  of  the 
experiment  this  year.  It  may  safely  be  asserted  that  the 
dust  spray  is  unreliable  in  an  excessively  wormy  orchard. 
The  750  windfalls  of  experiment  3 of  table  1,  represents  the 
total  number  of  windfalls  from  this  tree  while  the  picked 
apples  were  but  about  one-fifth  of  the  fruit  on  the  tree.  In 
the  other  experiments  the  windfalls  are  proportional  to  the 
number  picked  from  the  trees. 

It  is  of  interest  to  note  the  cost  of  spraying  this  orchard. 
To  spray  the  hundred  trees  required  but  a couple  of  hours, 
but  labor  was  paid  for  at  half  day  rates. 
COST  OF  THE  Many  more  trees  could  have  been  sprayed 


TREATMENT,  at  but  a slight  advance  in  cost. 

Team  and  driver,  one  half  day,  - $2.00. 

Two  men,  at  $2,  - 2.00. 

Arsenate  of  lead,  20  lbs.,  at  16c.,  3.20. 

Total  for  each  spraying,  - - $7.20. 

Total  for  four  sprayings,  - - $28.80. 


In  this  case  the  investment  of  less  than  $30  insured  a 
crop  of  1200  boxes  which  sold  for  $1200.  If  the  spraying 
had  not  been  done  the  crop  would  have  brought  only  $100  as 


6 


Washington  Agricultural  Expet  intent  Station 


cider  apples.  The  fruit  from  the  fifty  unsprayed  trees  was 
rejected  by  the  buyer  and  was  disposed  of  to  the  vinegar 
factory  at  the  rate  of  twelve  boxes  for  a dollar. 

The  orchard  of  C.  L.  Whitney  comprises  but  a few 
hundred  trees.  No  attempt  has  hitherto  been  made  to  sup- 
press the  codling  moth  as  the  trees  have  been 
WHITNEY’S  kept  for  scions  in  Mr.  Whitney’s  nursery 
ORCHARD,  rather  than  for  their  fruit.  A part  of  this 
orchard  lies  in  a low  meadow  land  grown  to 
alfalfa.  The  heavy  frost  that  occurred  at  blossoming  time 
destroyed  most  of  the  fruit  of  this  portion  of  the  orchard. 
The  only  fruit  that  set  came  from  late  blossoms,  many  of 
which  were  not  yet  open  at  the  time  of  spraying.  The  low 
percentage  of  good  fruit  from  these  trees  (experiment  7, 
table  2)  bespeaks  a good  moral.  Ordinarily  the  first  blos- 
soms are  the  ones  to  set.  If  these  become  frozen  it  will  pay 
to  repeat  the  first  spraying  for  the  tardy  blossoms,  or  at 
least  to  time  this  spraying  for  their  benefit. 

The  following  table  briefly  indicates  the  results  of  spray- 
ing in  this  orchard : 


Table  II. 


Exp. 

No. 

No. 

Trees 

count’d 

Variety 

How  Sprayed 

Good 

Wormy 

Per  Ct. 
Good 

1 

1 

Yellow  Transparent 

2 sprayings 

745 

2 

99.8 

2 

2 

Wealthy 

3 “ 

631 

2 

99.7 

3 

2 

Red  Cheeked  Pippin 

4 “ 

964 

23 

98 

4 

1 

Jonathan 

4 

1489 

33 

98 

5 

1 

King 

4 

739 

86 

90 

6 

1 

Rome  Beauty 

4 

225 

9 

97 

7 

3 

Jonathan 

4 “ frosted 

694 

66 

91 

8 

1 

«« 

1st  spraying  omitted 

319 

291 

52 

9 

1 

*« 

Not  sprayed 

480 

445 

52 

10 

1 

Rome  Beauty 

52 

240 

17 

The  apples  of  experiments  1 and  2 were  picked  early,  be- 
fore the  onset  of  the  second  brood.  The  low  percentage  for 
the  King  apple  is  relatively  high  for  this  variety.  In  our 
Yakima  series  of  tests  the  King  apple  sprayed  with  Paris 
green  ran  about  at  60  per  cent,  good  when  Rome  Beauties  ran 
at  96  per  cent.  This  would  indicate  that  arsenate  of  leadjis 
a valuable  spray  for  apples  with  an  excessively  waxy  skin. 

The  well  kept  orchard  of  W.  S.  Offner  represents  an 


Bulletin  No.  86 — The  Codling  Moth  in  190J 


7 


average  ranch  under  the  charge  of  hired  men.  A positive 
effort  has  yearly  been  made  to  keep  this  place 
OFFNER’S  properly  sprayed,  but  the  lack  of  skill  on  the 
ORCHARD,  part  of  the  workmen  has  resulted  in  losses  of 
15  to  40  per  cent.  The  heavy  freeze  at  blos- 
soming time  seriously  affected  this  orchard  also.  The  crop 
this  year  was  light,  and  therefore  more  subject  to  worms, 
while  much  of  the  fruit  came  from  late  blossoms  which  were 
not  in  proper  receptive  condition  at  the  time  of  the  first 
spraying.  Nevertheless  even  under  these  untoward  condi- 
tions the  results  given  in  Table  3 clearly  show  the  import- 
ance of  proper  spraying  methods.  The  counts  of  these 
tables  include  a proportionate  number  of  windfalls  unless 
otherwise  stated.  Trees  with  a few  wormy  apples  have  a 
correspondingly  small  number  of  windfalls. 


Table  III. 


NO. 

Per  Ct. 

trees 

count’d 

Variety 

Treatment 

Good 

Wormy 

Good 

5 

Jonathan 

4 sprayings 

4512 

192 

96. 

4 

Jonathan 

. Not  sprayed 

54 

512 

9. 

The  orchard  of  John  Ross  near  the  state  line  to  the  south 
of  Walla  Walla  was  selected  for  practical  dust  spraying. 

Most  unfortunately  for  the  experi- 
THE  ORCHARD  OF  ment,  but  luckily  for  Mr.  Ross,  the 
JOHN  ROSS.  dust  machine  was  delayed  so  that  the 

first  spraying  was  given  by  Mr.  Ross 
with  liquid.  This  orchard  of  three  hundred  trees  had  been 
sprayed  with  a power  sprayer  the  year  previous.  At  pick- 
ing time  a careful  estimate  of  several  trees  gave  the  follow- 
ing results. 

1.  — Yellow  Newtown,  with  three  dust  sprayings,  the 
first  spraying  not  given,  5 per  cent,  free  from  worms. 

2.  — Yellow  Newtown,  first  spraying  of  liquid,  three  sub- 
sequent dust  sprayings,  60  per  cent,  good  on  the  trees,  but 
with  many  wormy  windfalls. 

3.  — Rome  Beauty  and  Jonathan,  sprayed  as  number  2, 
90  per  cent,  free  from  worms. 


8 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


4. — Jonathan,  not  sprayed,  15  per  cent.  good. 

The  results  here  bear  out  what  we  have  observed  in  the 
experimental  dust  spraying  "in  the  Lennon  orchard.  Dust 
should  not  be  depended  on  to  clean  up  a wormy  orchard.  In 
Mr.  Ross7  case  400  boxes  were  lost,  20  per  cent,  of  his  crop. 
This  was  a direct  loss  of  $400  for  his  little  orchard,  most  of 
which  could  have  been  saved  by  proper  spraying.  It  will  be 
recalled,  moreover,  that  Mr.  Ross  gave  the  all-important  first 
spraying  with  liquid.  Otherwise  his  loss  would  have  prob- 
ably been  much  greater. 

The  advocates  of  dust  spraying  make  much  of  the  rapid- 
ity with  which  the  dust  can  be  applied.  A liquid  sprayer 
working  at  200  pounds  pressure  can  cover  the  trees  nearly 
or  quite  as  fast  as  the  dust  sprayer,  while  the  comparative 
cheapness  and  cleanliness  of  the  liquid  spray  are  strong 
points  in  its  favor.  Eight  hundred  trees  the  size  of  those  in 
Mr.  Ross7  orchard  could  be  sprayed  by  our  power  outfit  in  a 
day,  while  it  took  practically  a day  to  complete  a dust  spray- 
ing of  his  300  trees  after  preparing  the  materials.  The  only 
important  point  in  favor  of  dust  spraying  is  therefore  the 
cheapness  of  the  outfit,  but  in  a very  wormy  district  the  in- 
creased saving  from  worms,  even  in  a small  orchard,  brought 
about  by  using  a liquid  spray,  will  pay  for  the  spraying, 
power  machine  and  all.  A discussion  of  the  effect  of  the 
dust  spray  on  fruit  is  given  further  on  in  the  paragraph  on 
the  Holcomb  orchard  at  Wenatchee  (page  13). 

Although  the  codling  moth  has  been  present  in  the  upper 
Wenatchee  district  for  a score  of  years  it  is  only  recently  that 
the  pest  has  pervaded  the  valley.  The  cod- 
WENATCHEE  ling  moth  is  now  considered  a regular  factor 
CONDITIONS,  in  orcharding,  and  every  Wenatchee  grower 
makes  some  effort  to  spray.  Nevertheless, 
in  those  orchards  where  the  moth  has  been  present  a half- 
dozen  years  the  best  determined  efforts  have  saved  but  three 
fourths  of  the  crop.  The  explanation  for  this  is  that  grow- 
ers have  employed  the  old  fashioned  methods  in  vogue  before 
they  emigrated  to  Wenatchee.  They  have  used  low  pressure 
pumps,  and  have  aimed  for  a concentrated  misty  spray.  They 


Bulletin  No.  85 — The  Codling  Moth  in  1907 


9 


regularly  have  given  the  second  spraying  ten  days  or  two 
weeks  after  the  first  according  to  the  old  rule,  and  any  sub- 
sequent sprayings  have  been  given  whenever  convenient. 

It  was  to  demonstrate  the  value  of  experimental  methods 
of  investigation  that  we  determined  to  apply  the  knowledge 
of  the  codling  moth  gained  from  the  study  of  Washington 
conditions  to  the  important  apple  district  at  Wenatchee.  Two 
orchards  were  selected,  the  first  where  the  moth  had  been 
present  for  many  years,  the  other  in  the  lower  valley. 

Mr.  Z.  A.  Lanham  has  had  a hard  struggle  with  the 
codling  moth.  His  ten  year  old  orchard  has  been  regularly 
sprayed  in  what  was  generally  conceded  to 
LANHAM’S  be  an  approved  manner.  A gasolene  engine 
ORCHARD.  pump,  working  at  140  pounds  and  fitted  with 
Vermorel  nozzles,  was  employed.  The  Eagle 
brand  of  arsenate  of  lead  was  used,  in  the  proportion  of 
three  pounds  to  fifty  gallons.  In  1906  four  sprayings  were 
given  yet  the  loss  from  worms  was  over  3000  boxes  or  40  per 
cent,  of  the  entire  crop,  according  to  the  observations  of  the 
foreman  and  pickers. 

This  season  we  used  the  same  Eagle  brand  of  arsenate 
of  lead,  but  in  the  proportion  of  one  pound  to  forty  gallons. 
We  used  a Bean  power  sprayer  working  at  180  to  200  pounds 
pressure.  Each  of  the  two  extension  rods  was  fitted  with 
two  Bordeaux  nozzles  set  at  an  angle  of  about  45  degrees. 
This  arrangement  of  the  nozzles  enabled  us  to  throw  the 
spray  through  all  parts  of  the  tree  by  simply  twisting  the 
rod.  It  is  to  this  simple  device  that  much  of  our  success  is 
due.  The  spray  was  rained  on  until  the  trees  commenced  to 
drip.  At  the  first  spraying  we  did  not  stop  even  then,  but 
by  the  time  we  were  satisfied  that  every  flower  cup  was  filled 
with  spray,  the  ground  beneath  the  trees  was  wet.  To  spray 
thus  took  from  seven  to  fifteen  gallons  to  each  tree,  whereas 
but  three  gallons  or  less  sufficed  for  the  second  spraying,  but 
even  so  we  used  much  less  arsenate  of  lead  than  had  been 
put  on  the  year  before. 

We  had  planned  to  test  various  spraying  methods,  such 
as  varying  the  strength  of  the  spray  at  the  different  spray- 


IO 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


ings.  We  also  wished  to  compare  with  the  older  brands  two 
new  makes  of  arsenate  of  lead,  Vreeland’s  and  Lavanberg's. 
Vreeland’s  brand  of  arsenate  of  lead  has  a higher  arsenic 
content  than  any  other  brand  we  know,  containing  over  20 
per  cent,  of  arsenic  as  compared  with  the  14  per  cent,  of 
the  usual  brands.  Athough  a dozen  experiments  intended  to 
show  the  best  strength  of  spray  were  carried  on  they  gave 
no  results  for  comparison.  Throughout  the  tests  the  weaker 
spray  gave  as  good  effects  as  the  stronger,  and  all  the  brands 
of  arsenate  proved  alike  in  producing  a perfecty  clean  crop. 
It  may  be  emphasized  as  we  have  stated  in  previous  publica- 
ions  that  success  depends  not  so  much  on  a correct  formula, 
nor,  with  the  exception  of  the  first  spraying,  on  the  exact 
timing  of  the  sprayings.,  but  altogether  on  the  manner  in 
which  the  spraying  is  done. 

At  picking  time  representative  trees  were  stripped.  The 
results  of  the  tests  have  too  much  uniformity  for  compari- 
son, and  but  reiterate  the  importance  of  proper  spraying 
regardless  of  what  brand  is  used. 


Table  IV. 


Exp. 

Formula 

Brand 

Good 

Wormy 

1 

1:40,  all  sprayings 

Eagle 

1942 

0 

2 

1:40,  first;  1:50  others 

“ 

1790 

4 

3 

3:50,  “ 1^40  “ 

1323 

4 

4 

1:20,  " 1:50  “ 

•4 

1067 

0 

5 

1:50,  “ 1:80  “ 

Vreeland 

1325 

l 

6 

1:80,  all 

•« 

2499 

2 

7 

3:200,  first;  1:40  others 

Lavanberg 

868 

0 

These  tests  were  conducted  in  what  was  acknowledged 
the  wormiest  part  of  the  orchard.  The  trees  from  which 
the  counts  were  made  were  adjacent  to  a packing  shed  which 
had  contained  1400  boxes  of  wormy  culls  the  winter  pre- 
vious. Half  of  this  wormy  fruit  was  fed  to  stock  during  the 
winter.  The  remainder  was  kept  in  the  shed  until  it  decayed 
in  the  spring.  At  any  rate  whatever  moths  came  from  this 
mass  of  wormy  fruit  had  every  opportunity  to  lay  their 
eggs  on  the  very  trees  from  which  the  counts  were  made. 
The  foreman  stated  that  in  this  portion  of  the  orchard  the 


Bulletin  No.  86 — The  Codling  Moth  in  1907 


1 E 


ground  had  been  covered  with  wormy  windfalls  the  year  be- 
fore, estimating  that  there  had  been  nearly  two  hundred 
boxes  of  windfalls  to  the  acre  left  on  the  ground  when  the 
crop  was  picked.  This  year  scarcely  a windfall  was  to  be 
seen. 

The  relation  of  the  wormy  and  good  apples  of  the  trees 
stripped  and  counted  is  one  worm  to  1000  apples,  or  one  tenth 
of  one  per  cent.  The  following  letter  from  Mr.  Lanham 
shows  that  the  stripped  trees  were  representative  of  the  en- 
tire orchard,  even  though  they  must  have  received  the  eggs 
of  thousands  of  moths  from  the  shed  that  settled  on  them  in 
preference  to  flying  into  the  interior  of  the  orchard. 

Glencove  Fruit  Farm,  Wentachee,  10,  31,  1907. 

Prof.  Melander:  We  have  gathered  our  apple  crop  and 

marketed  5605  boxes,  and  by  as  careful  an  estimate  as  we 
could  make,  we  lost  not  more  than  one  tenth  of  one  per  cent. 
That,  I consider,  very  remarkable,  considering  the  great  loss 
I had  last  year.  You  have  certainly  demonstrated  the  fact 
that  the  codling  moth  can  be  kept  in  check  with  proper 
spraying.  Very  respectfully, 

Z.  A.  Lanham. 

This  would  place  the  loss  from  worms  at  but  six  boxes, 
an  impressive  contrast  to  the  3000  boxes  lost  the  year  before. 
675  trees  of  the  orchard  were  banded.  The  entire  number 
of  worms  obtained  from  these  bands  this  year  was  178. 
Last  year  the  same  bands  harbored  over  100,000  worms. 

The  conclusion  we  can  draw  from  this  recital  is  that  the 
first  spraying  was  so  thorough  that  every  blossom  was  filled 
with  poison.  Since  practically  all  the  early  worms  seek  to 
enter  the  apple  at  the  calyx  end,  they  were  destroyed  as  fast 
as  they  came.  This  complete  destruction  of  the  first  brood 
left  no  progenitors  of  the  second  and  there  were  no  late 
worms  to  blemish  the  apples.  From  the  record  this  year  at 
Wenatchee  it  would  seem  that  the  first  spraying  did  all  the 
work,  and  that  not  enough  worms  escaped  to  make  the 
other  three  sprayings  pay  for  their  application.  The  truth 
of  this  assertion  will  be  determined  next  season. 


12 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


It  may  be  of  value  to  note  the  cost  of  this  treatment. 

The  trees  of  Mr.  Lanham  are  ten  years  of 
THE  COST  age,  but  are  very  large.  At  the  first 

OF  SPRAYING,  spraying  they  averaged  7i  gallons  of 
spray.  At  the  second  less  than  three  gal- 
lons were  used.  The  increasing  size  of  the  fruit  at  the  third 
and  fourth  sprayings  required  four  to  five  gallons  per  tree. 
During  a day  eleven  tanks,  or  2200  gallons,  were  sprayed, 


the  cost  divided  as  follows: 

Labor:  Team  and  driver  - - $3.50 

Two  men,  at  $2.50  - 5.00 

Materials:  Gasolene  - .80 

Arsenate  of  lead,  44  pounds,  at  16c.  7.00 


$16.30 

The  cost  per  gallon  is  therefore  less  than  three-fourths 
of  a cent.  The  10-year  old  trees  of  this  orchard  averaged 
twenty  gallons  for  the  season’s  spraying,  costing  fifteen 
cents  per  tree.  The  entire  spraying  bill  for  this  season 
amounted  to  $225.  Last  year  but  twelve  gallons  were  used 
to  each  tree,  but  with  Vermorel  nozzles  and  the  lower  pres- 
sure it  required  a longer  time  to  spray,  and  with  the  triple 
strength  of  arsenate  of  lead,  this  brought  the  cost  of  the 
season’s  spraying  appreciably  over  $300. 

Inadvertantly  all  the  trees  in  Mr.  Lanham’s  orchard 
were  sprayed.  Therefore  as  a check  on  the  value  of  the 

spraying  we  must  consider  the 
THE  PENALTY  OF  results  obtained  in  neighboring  or- 
IMPROPER  SPRAYING,  chards.  Otherwise  those  unfam- 
iliar with  the  conditions  might 
suppose  that  this  was  an  off-year  with  the  codling  moth. 
For  this  purpose  we  prefer  to  quote  from  a letter  received 
from  the  Special  Horticultural  Inspector  for  the  Okanogan 
district. 

“I  consider  the  results  obtained  in  the  spraying  demon- 
strations here  wonderful.  I had  never  before  seen  or  heard 
of  such  results.  I was  present  when  the  count  was  made 
and  out  of  11.000  apples  only  eleven  were  found  wormy.  I 


Bulletin  IVo.  86 — The  Codling  Moth  in  igoj 


13 


inspected  other  orchards  in  the  immediate  neighborhood  to 
compare  results.  At  the  Cox  place,  adjacent  to  the  Lanham 
place,  I roughly  estimated  the  per  cent,  of  wormy  fruit  to  be 
about  50  per  cent.  This  orchard  had  been  sprayed  several 
times  but  evidently  not  according  to  up  to  date  methods. 
The  Garrison  place,  within  one-fourth  mile  from  Lanham’s 
had  also  about  50  per  cent,  wormy  fruit.  These  results  ob- 
tained by  our  State  College  officials  are  truly  encouraging 
and  they  prove  to  me  that  any  intelligent  fruit  grower  need 
no  longer  fear  the  ravages  of  the  codling  moth.” 

Signed,  P.  S.  Darlington,  Special  State  Horticultural 
Inspector. 

The  Cox  orchard  of  which  Mr.  Darlington  writes  had 
been  sprayed  four  times  for  the  first  brood,  but  not  for  the 
second.  Three  pounds  of  arsenate  of  lead  to  fifty  gallons, 
a hand  pump  of  low  pressure,  andVermorel  nozzles  had  been 
used.  The  Garrison  orchard  had  beer  given  the  first  spray- 
ing only,  and  in  the  same  way  as  at  Cox’s  orchard.  Such 
cases  show  that  if  spraying  is  to  be  worth  anything  it  must 
be  carefully  done. 

The  western  half,  including  ten  acres,  of  the  orchard  of 
the  late  B.  B.  Holcomb  was  selected  as  a representative  com- 
mercial orchard.  The  largest  part  of  this 
HOLCOMB’S  orchard  was  sprayed  but  three  times,  the 
ORCHARD.  usual  second  spray  being  omitted.  The 
marginal  five  rows  around  the  orchard  were 
given  four  sprayings.  The  dates  of  the  sprayings  were  May 
15,  June  20,  July  23  and  August  25.  In  this  orchard  a num- 
ber of  trees  were  sprayed  with  dust,  in  amounts  varying 
from  one  pound  to  thirteen  pounds  per  application.  The 
object  of  this  dusting  was  to  find  out  if  even  excessive 
amounts  of  dust  spray  could  produce  perfect  fruit.  Finely 
screened  dry  slaked  lime,  twenty  parts,  and  Paris  green,  one 
part,  formed  the  dust  mixture.  At  picking  time  every  one 
of  the  dusted  trees  had  a large  proportion  of  badly  distorted 
apples  although  all  were  comparatively  free  from  worms. 
The  amount  of  distortion  was  directly  proportional  to  the 
amount  of  dust  they  had  received.  A tree  sprayed  with 


14 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


thirteen  pounds  of  dust  at  the  first  spraying  and  five  pounds 
attach  of  the  other  three  sprayings  had  more  than  one-half 
of  its  fruit  rendered  unsalable.  A count  was  made  of  a tree 
dusted  with  5:2:2 :2  pounds  at  the  various  sprayings.  1501 
good  apples  were  found,  158  were  so  badly  distorted  as  to  be 
unsalable,  and  six  were  wormy.  No  distortion  at  all  was 
apparent  on  the  adjacent  liquid  sprayed  trees.  The  abnor- 
mality consisted  of  a woodiness  of  the  skin,  which  was  often 
cracked  deeply,  after  the  manner  of  scorching  from  Bordeaux 
spraying.  Many  of  the  apples  were  soft  and  decayed 
throughout  their  lower  naif.  The  scorching  obviously  was 
caused  either  by  arsenic  poisoning  from  the  Paris  green  or 
by  dessication  by  the  excess  of  lime.  Apparently  it  was  in- 
duced at  the  first  spraying  as  it  always  manifested  itself  at 
the  calyx  end  first.  After  the  first  spraying  many  blossoms 
which  were  sectioned  showed  that  the  dust  had  penetrated 
beneath  the  crown  of  stamens.  It  must  be  mentioned  that 
the  Wm.  Turner  orchard,  where  we  obtained  the  sifted  dust 
mixture,  was  dusted  in  part,  the  same  material  being  used, 
and  in  this  orchard  there  was  no  evident  scorching.  The 
trees  of  this  place  were  dusted  with  the  usual  amount  of 
about  one-half  pound  to  each  tree. 

Counts  were  made  of  a few  liquid  sprayed  trees  as  they 
were  being  picked.  The  results  of  the  spraying  in  this  or- 
chard are  given  in  Table  5.  It  will  be  noticed  that  the  Ben 
Davis  number  2 was  located  in  the  middle  portion  of  the  or- 
chard where  the  usual  second  spraying  was  omitted.  Ap- 
parently in  an  orchard  kept  in  a clean  condition  there  is  no 
need  of  giving  this  spraying  if  the  first  spraying  be  thor- 
ough. No  account  of  the  previous  worminess  of  the  Hol- 
comb orchard  is  available.  We  know  it  has  not  been  as  near 
perfect  as  this  year,  but  the  place  has  not  been  considered  a 
wormy  orchard.  The  chief  picker  stated  it  was  fully  20  per 
cent,  wormy  last  year,  while  Mr.  Holcomb  did  not  suppose  it 
went  above  five  per  cent,  wormy.  The  Holcomb  ranch  has 
been  regularly  sprayed.  Trees  4,  5 and  6 were  picked  early 
in  the  season,  before  the  time  of  the  last  spraying.  These 
trees  are  representatives  as  practically  no  apples  were  culled 
by  the  packers  because  of  worminess,  a clean  record  of  100 
per  cent,  for  the  liquid  sprayed  trees. 


5 


Bulletin  No.  86 — The  Codling  Moth  in  1907  1 


Table  V. 


Per  Ct. 

Variety 

Treatment 

Good 

Wormy 

Good 

1.  Ben  Davis.... 

4 liquid  sprayings 

1878 

0 

100. 

2.  Ben  Davis.... 

3 liquid  sprayings 

2087 

0 

100. 

3.  Ben  Davis.... 

4 dust  sprayings 

1658 

6 

99.64 

4.  King 

3 liquid  sprayings 

3215 

4 

99.88 

5.  King 

2 liquid  sprayings 

546 

5 

99.08 

6.  Spitzenberg. 

3 liquid  sprayings 

457 

2 

99.57 

7.  Jonathan 

not  sprayed 

529 

182 

74.40 

8.  Ben  Davis... 

not  sprayed 

1132 

57 

95  21 

For  the  privilege  of  conducting  these  experiments  we 
wish  to  thank  the  owners  of  the  various  orchards.  We  desire 

to  thank  the  John  Smith 
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.  Company  of  Walla  Walla  and 

Messrs.  Wells  and  Morris 
of  Wenachee  for  generously  loaning  the  modern  Bean  power 
sprayer,  three  of  which  we  had  in  operation.  Similarly  we 
are  indebted  to  the  Wenatchee  Produce  Company  for  the  use 
of  a Gould's  power  sprayer  operated  by  an  air  cooled  gaso- 
lene engine.  All  the  spraying  was  done  by  the  authors  or 
under  their  personal  direction. 

Some  conclusions  of  the  greatest  practical  importance 
can  be  drawn  from  this  season's  observations.  Briefly  stated 

they  are  these.  Practically  every 
READjTHESE  SPRAY-  worm  of  the  first  brood  attempts  to 
ING  DIRECTIONS.  enter  the  apple  at  the  calyx  end. 

If  every  calyx  cup  is  filled  with 
poison,  practically  every  worm  will  therefore  be  poisoned. 
There  will  then  be  no  second  brood.  But  poison  can  be  put 
into  the  calyx  cup  only  within  a few  days  after  the  petals 
have  fallen.  If  it  is  not  done  then  no  amount  of  after  spray- 
ing can  force  a thorough  coating  of  poison  into  the  calyx 
end  of  the  apple,  and  the  apples  will  become  wormy.  This 
fundamental  principle  must  be  understood  if  you  wish  suc- 
cess. In  the  foregoing  pages  we  have  shown  that  the  first 
spraying  CAN  be  so  thoroughly  applied  that  other  sprayings 
are  hardly  necessary.  This  can  be  done  by  using  much 
pressure,  a coarse  spray,  a bent  nozzle,  and  enough  liquid  to 
drench ’every  blossom.  Use  arsenate  of  lead,  and  if  you 


i6 


Washington  Agtiadtuj at  Experiment  Statro?i 


spray  thoroughly  one  pound  to  50  gallons  will  be  strong 
enough.  Force  the  spray  into  every  flower.  This  means  that 
four  fifths  of  your  spray  must  be  thrown  down  from  above 
every  branch,  but  it  also  means  that  you  must  spray  in  every 
other  direction  too.  If  the  trees  are  tall  it  will  pay  to  spray 
from  a tower.  Otherwise  a bead  at  the  end  of  the  extension 
rod  will  answer.  STAY  WITH  EACH  TREE  UNTIL  YOU 
ARE  SURE  THAT  EVERY  BLOSSOM  IS  FILLED  WITH 
SPRAY.  That  is  what  we  mean  by  spraying  thoroughly. 


FIG.  1.— Diagram  of  the  Flower  at  Time  of  First  Spraying. 

The  outer  calyx  cup  (1)  can  be  easily  sprayed,  but  the  fleshy  stamen  bars  (2)  and  the 
branched  pistil  (3)  make  a tight  capping  over  the  inner  calyx  cavity  (4)  through  which  it  is 
difficult  to  spray.  Since  most  worms  enter  the  apple  at  4 the  inner  cavity  must  be  thor- 
oughly poisoned,  and  this  can  not  be  done  by  a low-pressure  misty  spray. 

The  first  spraying  must  be  done  on  time.  Commence  when 
about  85%  of  the  white  petals  have  fallen.  If  one  pump  can  not 
cover  the  orchard  in  eight  days  get  enough  outfits  to  do  so.  If 
the  orchard  contains  mixed  varieties  that  do  not  blossom  to- 
gether, go  over  it  more  than  once,  spraying  each  variety 
when  it  is  in  best  conditon.  Never  put  off  the  first  spraying. 
It  must  be  done  on  time.  We  recommend  to  you  to  repeat 
this  spraying  in  one  week,  and  in  the  same  way  as  before. 
This  application  will  help  insure  thoroughness  and  will  have 
more  value  than  a spraying  given  at  any  other  time  of  the 
year. 

But  if  the  first  spraying  is  not  thorough,  so  that  you 
permit  even  a few  first  brood  worms  to  live  you  will  have 


Bulletin  No . 86  — The  Codling  Moth  in  1907 


17 


many  of  the  second  brood  to  endanger  the  fruit.  Most  of 
these  worms  also  attempt  to  enter  at  the  calyx,  and  here  the 
value  of  the  first  spraying  is  again  apparent.  But  as  many 
of  the  late  worms  try  to  enter  the  sides  it  is  necessary  to 
keep  every  side  of  every  apple  coated  with  poison.  A second 
spraying  for  the  first  brood  and  two  sprayings  for  the  sec- 
ond brood  usually  are  necessary  to  accomplish  this.  At  any 
of  these  sprayings  spray  until  the  apples  just  start  to  drip. 
You  may  use  the  same  outfit  as  for  the  first  spraying,  or 
you  may  use  lower  pressure,  Vermorel  nozzles,  and  a straight 
extension  rod.  It  is  not  necessary  at  these  sprayings  to 
spray  from  above  the  fruit. 

For  the  last  three  years  the  second  spraying,  which  is 
given  when  codling  moth  eggs  are  beginning  to  hatch,  has 
followed  a month  to  six  weeks  after  the  first.  The  third 
spraying  should  be  given  one  month  after  the  first  worms 
appear  under  the  bands.  The  effect  of  this  spraying  lasts 
three  or  four  weeks,  when  the  fourth  spraying  should  be 
given. 

These  directions  are  simple.  If  you  follow  them  you 
need  have  no  dread  of  the  codling  moth.  You  can  set  out  to 
have  whatever  number  of  worms  you  wish,  just  according  to 
how  carefully  or  how  carelessly  you  give  the  first  spraying. 


FIG.  2. — An  abandoned  orchard  in  the  city  of  Walla  Walla,  scaly,  wormy,  unpruned, 
uncared-for,  was  changed  in  a single  season  to  99  per  cent,  and  more  of  clean  fruit  by  care- 
ful spraying. 


FIG.  3— This  orchard  was  considered  such  a failure  that  most  of  it  had  been  cut  down 
in  order  to  grow  wheat  on  the  ground.  This  year  $1000  worth  of  apples  were  sold  from  one 
acre  of  the  remaining  trees.  The  wheat  barely  paid  the  taxes  of  the  land  it  occupied. 


FIG.  4 —The  large  pile  of  apples  to  the  left  is  wormy;  the  small  pile  is  clean.  These 
apples  came  from  a tree  in  the  part  of  the  orchard  that  was  not  sprayed  and  were  so  wormy 
that  it  did  not  pay  to  sort  them  over.  They  were  sold  to  a vinegar  factory  at  the  rate  of 
eight  cents  a box. 


FIG.  5. — The  man  holds  three  wormy  apples,  all  that  weie  found  in  25  boxes.  That 
is  what  99.9  per  cent  of  clean  fruit  means.  The  hoxes  in  the  background  were  filled  with 
wormy  culls  in  1906- and  there  were  3000  boxes  full.  This  year  careful  spraying  reduced 
the  number  of  culls  to  six  boxes  in  all. 


LIST  OF  BULLETINS 


No. 


The  following  bulletins  of  this  station  are  now  available  for 
distribution.  Missing  numbers  are  out  of  print. 

1.  Announcements. 

2.  Report  of  Farmers’  Institute  held  at  Colton. 

3.  “ “ “ “ “ Garfield 

4.  Wireworms 

5.  Report  of  Farmer’s  Institute  held  at  Pomeroy. 

7.  Two  Injurious  Insects.  (The  Pea  Weevil  and  Cottony  Maple  Scale) 

10.  Wheat,  Barley,  Oats,  Peas  and  Forage  Crops. 

11.  Preliminary  Report  of  Feeding  Test  with  Swine. 

25.  Pruning  Orchard  Trees. 

28.  Clearing  Land. 

31.  Irrigation  Experiments  in  Sugar  Beet  Culture  in  Yakima  Valley. 

32.  Correction  of  Babcock  Test  for  Cream,  Effects  of  Richness  of  Cream 

on  Acid  Test. 

33.  Fiber  Flax  Investigation. 

34.  The  Russian  Thistle  in  Washington. 

35.  Miscellaneous  Injurious  Insects. 

36.  Insects  Injurious  to  Currants  and  Gooseberries. 

37.  The  Present  Status  of  the  Russian  Thistle  in  Washington. 

4r.  Grasses  and  Forage  Plants  in  Washington. 

42.  A New  Sugar  Beet  Pest  and  Other  Insects  Attacking  Beets. 

47.  The  Variegated  Cut-Worm. 

48.  Mechanical  Ration  Computer. 

49.  Alkali  and  Alkali  Soils. 

55.  Washington  Soils. 

57.  A Home  Vegetable  Garden  in  the  Palouse  Country. 

58.  Experiments  in  Feeding  Swine. 

59.  Root  Diseases  of  Fruit  and  Other  Trees  Caused  by  Toadstools. 

60.  A Report  on  the  Range  Conditions  of  Central  Washington. 

67.  Some  Notes  Concerning  Halpen’s  Test  for  Cotton  Seed  Oil. 

68.  The  Wormy  Apple. 

69.  Preliminary  Report  on  the  Codling  Moth  in  the  Yakima  Valley. 

70.  Powdery  Mildews  in  Washington. 

71.  Preserving  Eggs. 

72.  The  Chemical  Composition  of  Washington  Forage  Crops. 

74.  Two  Insect  Pests  of  the  Elm. 

75.  Apple  Scab  in  Eastern  Washington. 

76.  The  Economical  Preparation  of  the  Sulphur-Lime  Spray. 

77.  The  Codling  Moth  in  the  Yakima  Valley. 

78.  The  Goat  Industry  in  Western  Washington. 

79.  Steer  Feeding  under  Eastern  Washington  Conditions. 

80.  Growing  Alfalfa  Without  Irrigation  in  Washington. 

8t.  The  Codling  Moth  in  Eastern  Washington. 

82.  I.  The  Chemical  Composition  of  Washington  Forage  Crops. 

II.  Analyses  of  Grains  and  Concentrated  Stuffs. 

83.  Some  Important  Plant  Diseases  in  Washington. 

84.  Wheat  and  Flour  Investigations.  (Crop  of  1905) 

85.  Washington  Soils. 

86.  The  Codling  Moth  in  1907. 


THE  STATE  COLLEGE  OF  WASHINGTON 

Agricultural  Experiment  Station 

Pullman,  Washington  

Department  of 

HORTICULTURE 

= 

Raspberries,  Blackberries  and 
Loganberries  in  Washington 

BY  W.  S.  THORNBER 

" ™ ~ 

Bulletin  No.  87 

190  9 


The  Puyallup  Summer  Fruit  Association  Building.  The  center  of  the  small 
fruit  industr3T  of  that  section. 

All  bulletins  of  this  Station  sent  free  to  citizens  of  the  State  on  application  to  director 


BOARD  OF  CONTROL 


Peter  McGregor,  President , Colfax 
F.  J.  Barnard,  Treasurer , Seattle 

K.  A.  Bryan,  Secretary  ex  officio , Pullman 

President  of  the  College 

J.  J.  Browne,  Spokane 

Dr.  J.  S.  Anderson,  Asotin 

Tee  A.  Johnson,  Sunnyside 


STATION  STAFF. 


i 


R.  W.  Thatcher,  M.  A.,  - - Director  and  Chemist 


E.E.  Elliott,  M.S. , Agriculturist,  Supt.  Farmers’  Institutes 


Elton  Fulmer,  M.  A., 

S.  B.  Nelson,  D.  V.  M., 

O.  L.  Waller,  Ph.  M.,  - 
R.  K.  Beattie,  A.  M.,  - 
Walter  S.  Thornber,  M.  s.  - 
A.  L.  Melander,  M.S.  - 
George  Severance,  B.  S., 

C.  W.  Lawrence,  B.  S.  - 
H.  B.  Berry,  B.  S., 

W.  H.  Lawrence,  M.  S., 

Ira  P.  Whitney,  B.  S.,  - 
W.  T.  McDonald,  M.  S.  A.  - 
W.  E.  Ralston,  D.  V.  M.,  - 

A.  G.  Craig,  B.  S., 

W.  T.  Shaw,  B.  S., 

H.  B.  Humphrey,  Ph.D., 
George  A.  Olson,  M.  S. 


State  Chemist 
Veterinarian 
Irrigation  Engineer 
Botanist 
Horticulturist 
Entomologist 
Agronomist 
Cerealist 
Soil  Physicist 
- Plant  Pathologist 
Dairy  Expert 

- Animal  Husbandman 

- Assistant  Veterinarian 
Assistant  Horticulturist 

Assistant  Zoologist 
Assistant  Botanist 
Assistant  Chemist 


Raspberries,  Blackberries  and 
Loganberries  in  Washington. 

BY  W.  S.  THORNBER. 


INTRODUCTION. 

Practically  all  kinds  of  small  fruit  can  be  profitably  grown 
in  nearly  every  part  of  Washington.  Some  localities  are 
especially  adapted  to  commercial  production  of  berries  or 
other  small  fruits.  In  others,  such  fruits  are  grown  only  for 
home  use ; but  wherever  other  fruit  is  grown,  either  for  home 
consumption  or  for  sale,  berries  can  be  produced  with  equal 
success  and  satisfaction. 

In  several  localities  in  this  state,  especially  west  of  the 
Cascade  Mountains,  berry-growing  has  come  to  be  a very 
important  industry.  The  fruit  grows  to  a perfection  found 
' in  few  other  parts  of  the  United  States.  The  difficulties  due 
to  expense  in  picking  and  marketing  the  berries  have  been 
overcome  by  careful  attention  to  the  manner  in  which  the 
berries  are  grown  and  by  the  formation  of  cooperative  associ- 
ations for  marketing  or  preserving  the  fruit.  The  information 
contained  in  this  Bulletin  has  been  gathered  largely  from  the 
experience  of  the  most  successful  berry-growers  in  those 
localities  and  from  the  berry  plantation  on  the  Station  farm 
at  Pullman.  While  intended  primarily  for  the  grower  of 
berries  for  commercial  purposes,  the  suggestions  are  equally 
» applicable  to  the  home  fruit  garden,  and  may  be  relied  upon 
to  give  profitable  returns  wherever  they  are  made  use  of. 

SOIL. 

The  raspberry  and  blackberry  are  two  of  our  most  cos- 
mopolitan plants.  Some  form  or  forms  of  each  are  found  in 
almost  every  climate  and  on  practically  all  kinds  of  soil.  True 


4 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


it  is  they  are  partial  to  certain  soils,  yet  no  farmer  in  the  state 
need  be  without  berries  if  he  chooses  to  grow  them.  A deep, 
well-drained,  yet  moist,  sandy  loam  with  considerable  humus 
in  it  is  the  ideal  soil.  While  blackberries  do  well  on  and 
apparently  favor  moist  soil,  raspberries  are  freer  from  winter 
injury  on  dry  soil  and  rather  favor  it  to  the  moister  soils.  If 
the  soil  lacks  humus  it  should  be  supplied  if  possible  either 
by  green  or  stable  manure  before  the  plants  are  started,  other- 
wise one  will  experience  more  or  less  difficulty  in  adding  humus. 
Plant  food  may  be  added  annually  and  economically  to  the 
soil  by  one  of  two  methods.  Either  by  growing  cover-crops 
of  vetch  or  peas  between  the  rows  and  working  them  into 
the  soil  in  spring,  or  by  the  hauling  in  of  stable  manures.  The 
latter  method  combines  two  of  our  very  important  industries 
under  one  management,  i.  e.,  dairying  and  small  fruit  growing. 
However,  the  phase  of  fertility  is  not  the  only  common  ground 
of  the  two  industries.  They  naturally  travel  hand  in  hand  and 
where  berries  are  grown,  dairy  cattle  should  be  kept. 

DRAINAGE. 

If  the  soil  is  not  naturally  well  drained  artificial  drainage 
must  be  provided,  or  success  cannot  be  expected.  Berry  plants 
enjoy  plenty  of  moisture  but  it  must  not  be  in  excess.  Many 
patches  visited  during  the  summer  of  1906-07  showed  evil 
effects  of  the  excess  of  water  at  their  roots.  Land  that  is  appar- 
ently dry  enough  during  the  summer  months  may  be  entirely 
too  wet  during  the  winter. 

While  studying  the  conditions  of  soil  drainage  the  phase 
of  air  drainage  must  not  be  neglected.  Evil  results  will  come 
from  poorly  air  drained  plantations  of  berries  just  as  surely 
as  they  will  come  from  poor  soil  drained  fields.  This  can  be 
avoided  by  the  use  of  properly  adapted  planting  plans  on 
sloping  fields,  and  the  removal  of  any  obstructions  such  as 
hedges,  fences,  etc.,  that  may  tend  to  check  the  free  circulation 
of  the  air  down  the  valleys  or  over  the  flats.  Plant  diseases 
and  insect  enemies  thrive  best  in  the  poorly  drained  field. 


Bulletin  No.  87— Ben  ies  in  Washington 


5 


CULTIVATION. 

Nothing  can  take  the  place  of  thorough  cultivation.  Care- 
less or  injudicious  tillage  ruins  more  fruit  than  all  the  insects 
and  plant  diseases  together.  “The  price  of  successful  fruit 
growing  is  eternal  vigilance.” 

Cultivation  is  the  most  economical  way  of  keeping  down 
the  weeds,  of  conserving  the  soil  moisture,  of  preparing  plant 
food  for  the  plants  and  of  improving  the  physical  condition 
of  the  soil.  These  are  vital  considerations  of  berry  culture. 

The  work  of  cultivation  should  start  as  early  in  the  spring 
as  the  soil  will  permit  and  continue  late  into  the  harvest  season. 
Many  berry  crops  are  cut  short  by  the  cessation  of  cultivation 
too  early  in  the  season.  The  early  cultivation  should  be  for 
the  purpose  of  loosening  up  the  soil  to  let  the  air  in,  while 
the  later  should  be  for  the  conservation  of  moisture,  the  killing 
of  weeds  and  suckers  and  making  plant  food  more  available. 

HARVESTING  THE  CROP. 

Every  commercial  berry  field  should  be  provided  with  a 
conveniently  located  packing  or  cooling  shed  of  some  sort. 
It  should  be  large  enough  to  provide  a place  for  the  temporary 
cooling  of  the  fruit  as  it  is  packed  as  well  as  some  sort  of  a 
shelter  for  the  packers  and  their  crates. 

One  of  the  perplexing  problems  that  most  growers  have 
to  contend  with  is  the  securing  of  pickers.  Many  of  the  growers 
are  solving  this  by  providing  suitable  and  pleasant  camping 
grounds  or  living  quarters,  and  securing  boys  and  girls  or  even 
young  people  from  the  cities  and  nearby  towns. 

The  methods  of  tabulating  the  work  of  the  pickers  is 
somewhat  varied.  However,  most  of  the  growers  are  using 
heavy  manila  tags  upon  which  is  printed  the  grower’s  name, 
a space  for  the  picker’s  name  and  figures  of  various  denomina- 
tions to  be  punched  as  the  required  number  of  cups  of  fruit 
are  picked.  These  tags  are  generally  suspended  by  a string 
around  the  picker’s  neck  and  when  all  punched  represent  one 


6 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


dollar’s  worth  of  labor.  In  many  country  places  they  are  often? 
passed  at  face  value  at  the  stores,  redeemable  on  demand  by* 
the  grower. 


A shipping  tag  with  this 
printing  upon  it  makes  an 
excellent  “Pickers  Tag” 


Several  forms  of  berry  stands  are  used  but  probably  the- 
most  satisfactory  one  is  the  low,  legless  one  which  is  hard  to 
upset  and  easily  placed  in  the  shade.  Some  pickers  prefer  the 
tall  one;  however,  it  is  difficult  to  set  in  the  shade  and  almost 
impossible  to  keep  it  from  tipping  over.  One  with  short  legs 
is  frequently  used ; but  it  has  few,  if  any,  advantages  over  the 
flat-bottomed  one. 


6 6 6 6 6 ! 6 i c 

CM 

Great  Northern  fruit  CO. 

— 1 ■ 

CM 

incorporated. 

-* 

- 

BERRY  TICKET 

3 Crates.  8 Boxes 

CM 

Good  tor  one  Dollar 

CM 

Monroe.  Washington. 

0) 

4 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 

A temporary  packing  shed 


Bulletin  No.  8y — Bcrties  in  Washington 


7 


A successful  grower  gives  the  following  directions  for 
picking : 

“Raspberries  should  be  picked  wThen  they  are  turning  red. 
They  will  color  and  ripen  in  twelve  hours,  and  will  have  as 
fine  a flavor  as  if  allowed  to  remain  on  the  vines  until  entirely 
ripe.  They  should  never  be  picked  when  wet  or  damp  nor 
picked  nor  packed  for  shipment  during  the  extreme  heat  of 
the  day.  If  picked  when  warm,  berries  should  be  allowed  to 
stand  in  the  picking  trays  in  the  shade  for  a few  hours  before 
packing.  The  morning  pick  is  the  best  long  distance  shipper. 

“A  rigid  inspection  of  vines  should  be  made  by  the  field 
boss  to  see  that  no  ripe  berries  are  overlooked  to  be  picked 
over-ripe  at  the  next  picking,  as  a few  of  these  will  spoil  an 
entire  case  and  may  lower  the  grade  of  the  entire  shipment. 
The  packer  at  the  receiving  shed  should  examine  each  tray 
delivered  by  the  pickers  to  see  that  the  berries  at  the  bottom 
of  the  cup  are  as  well  picked  as  those  at  the  top.  Display  on 
your  receiving  counter  a cup  of  well  picked  and  filled  berries 
and  call  attention  to  it  of  all  pickers  who  fall  below  the 
standard.” 


Pony  Refrigerators,  used  for  shipping  small  fruit  long  distances  in 
limited  quantities. 


8 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


SHIPPING. 

One  of  the  drawbacks  to  the  growing  of  soft  fruits  in 
many  sections  has  been  due  to  the  difficulty  of  getting  the 
fruit  to  market  without  serious  if  not  total  loss.  The  larger 
grower  and  the  fruit  associations  solved  this  problem  for  car- 
load lots.  Other  means  had  to  be  resorted  to  for  the  small 
or  isolated  shipper  and  as  a result  of  this  we  have  the  so-called 
“pony  refrigerator” — a small,  light  refrigerator  that  will  hold 
fifty-four  boxes  of  fruit,  constructed  in  such  a way  that  it  can 
be  sent  by  express,  iced  before  starting  and  reiced  once  or 
more  times  on  the  road  if  necessary,  and  when  empty  returned 
to  the  owner  or  shipper  to  be  refilled  and  sent  out  again.  This 
has  made  it  possible  for  small  growers  to  ship  quantities  of 
soft  fruit  from  the  coast  to  St.  Paul,  Chicago  and  other  central 
points  and  have  it  arrive  at  its  destination  in  good  condition. 

Care  must  be  exercised  in  the  handling  of  fruit  for  long 
shipments.  The  fruit  must  be  in  prime  condition  when  it 
leaves  the  field  and  not  needlessly  hauled  over  a rough  road 
nor  exposed  to  the  sun  for  a longer  period  of  time  than  is 
actually  necessary.  Over-ripe,  soft,  or  wet  fruit  should  never 
be  shipped  at  all  but  be  immediately  consigned  to  the  cannery, 
evaporator,  or  fruit  juice  factory. 

PLANTING  PLANS. 

The  distances  that  the  plants  should  be  set  apart  and  the 
plan  used  is  of  more  real  importance  to  the  berry  grower 
than  was  formerly  believed  to  be.  Many  berry  plantations  in 
Washington  are  now  yielding  poor  or  unsatisfactory  crops 
simply  because  they  are  planted  so  close  together  that  it  is 
impossible  to  give  proper  culture  and  training.  Like  all  other 
industries  of  a similar  nature  it  is  frequently  abused  by  the 
over  zealous  grower.  This  close  planting  is  not  only  responsible 
for  poorly  developed  plants  and  therefore  small  unsatisfactory 
yields,  but  is  also  responsible  to  a very  marked  degree  for 
the  severe  losses  from  insect  pests  and  plant  diseases.  There 
is  no  condition  more  favorable  to  these  pests  than  the  crowd- 


Bulletin  No.  8y — Berries  in  Washington 


9 


ing  of  plants  together  in  large  areas  such  as  we  find  in  Western 
Washington.  Weak  plants  and  poor  air  drainage  are  ideal 
conditions  for  all  kinds  of  pests  to  secure  a foothold  and  do 
much  damage.  The  following  reasons  give  some  of  the  evil 
effects  of  close  planting: 

(a)  Proper  tillage  cannot  be  given  when  the  plants  are 
crowded. 

(b)  The  training  of  the  plants  and  the  harvesting  of  the 
crop  is  more  expensive. 

(c)  Small  unsatisfactory  growth,  hence  light  yields. 

(d)  Poor  air  drainage  invites  plant  diseases. 

(e)  Crowding  provides  better  breeding  places  for  all 
kinds  of  insects. 

(f)  Increased  expenses  per  acre  for  planting,  care,  train- 
ing, and  harvesting,  without  increased  yields. 

(g)  Small,  soft  fruit  as  compared  with  large,  firm  fruit. 

The  soil,  moisture,  variety,  and  the  nature  of  growth  all 

tend  to  govern  the  planting  plan  used  and  the  distance  apart 
that  the  plants  are  to  be  set.  For  the  convenience  of  this  dis- 
cussion the  plants  are  grouped  under  two  heads  as  follows: 

1.  The  Upright  Growers.  These  include  the  red  rasp- 
berries and  such  of  the  blackberries  as  do  not  produce  long 
vines,  examples  of  which  are  Snyder,  Ancient,  Briton,  etc. 

2.  The  Viny  Growers.  Those  plants  producing  long,  trail- 
ing, recumbent  vines  so  commonly  seen  in  the  Logan  and  Phe- 
nomenal berries  and  The  Evergreen,  Early  Mammoth  and 
Himalaya  Giant  blackberries. 

I— UPRIGHT  GROWERS. 

There  are  two  general  systems,  with  numerous  modifica- 
tions, for  planting  the  upright  growers.  These  are  known  as 
the  “Hill”  and  “Continuous  row”  systems.  Each  has  its 
advantages  as  well  as  its  disadvantages.  The  evils  are  ap- 
parently minimized  in  the  former,  while  the  latter  system 
has  a greater  number  of  admirers  but  is  more  easily  abused. 
The  large  growers  apparently  favor  the  hill  system  on  account 


10 


Washington  Agricultural  Expo  intent  Station 


A forty  acre  field  of  Red  Raspberries  near  Monroe,  Washington 

of  the  advantages  that  it  offers  for  the  handling  of  large  yields; 
while  the  smaller  planters  usually  favor  the  continuous  row 
system  for  the  simple  reason  that  it  lends  itself  more  readily 
to  close  planting  and  heavy  fertilizing. 

Continuous  Rows — This  system  takes  its  name  from  the 
fact  that  the  plants  are  in  continuous  rows  and  while  the  indi- 


Snyder  Blackberry,  one  of  the  most  productive  sorts 


Bulletin  No.  Sy — Berries  in  Washington 


1 1 


vidual  plants  are  farther  apart  yet  it  bears  practically  the 
same  relation  to  bush  fruit  culture  that  the  matted  row  sys- 
tem does  to  strawberry  culture.  The  plants  are  set  in  rows 
from  seven  to  nine  feet  apart  and  from  two  to  three  feet 
apart  in  the  row.  While  this  gives  plenty  of  room  for  culture 
in  one  way  it  completely  bars  it  in  other  directions.  A large 
percentage  of  the  first  berry  fields  planted  in  Western  Wash- 
ington were  planted  in  this  way,  while  a majority  of  the  new 
fields,  and  especially  of  the  large  ones,  are  being  planted  in 
the  hill  system. 

Practically  the  only  advantage  that  this  has  over  the  hill 
system  is  that  it  is  possible  to  set  more  plants  per  acre  and 
under  favorable  conditions  harvest  a few  more  crates  of  berries 
per  acre.  However,  the  grade  is  usually  not  as  good  as  that 
of  those  grown  by  the  other  system. 

It  has  a few  very  important  disadvantages  that  should  be 
carefully  considered  by  every  prospective  grower.  They  are 
as  follows : 

1.  Cultivation  is  possible  in  only  one  direction. 

2.  Air  drainage  is  usually  not  so  good. 

3.  A large  portion  of  the  plant  is  shaded  more  hours  of 
the  day. 

4.  In  dense  rows  it  is  impossible  for  the  pickers  to  secure 
all  of  the  ripe  fruit  at  each  picking,  therefore  soft,  unmarket- 
able fruit  will  frequently  find  its  way  into  the  berry  cups. 

5.  Diseases  affecting  the  roots  of  the  plants  spread  more 
rapidly  in  these  closely  planted  fields  than  in  other  fields. 

6.  Diseases  affecting  the  canes  and  fruit  are  more  abun- 
dant in  the  continuous  row  than  the  hill  system. 

Hills — As  the  name  implies,  this  system  consists  of  grow- 
ing the  plants  in  hills  rather  than  in  continuous  rows.  The 
distances  that  the  plants  are  apart  will  be  governed  somewhat 
by  the  fertility  and  variety  of  the  fruit  grown.  A rank  grow- 
ing variety  on  rich  soil  should  be  planted  from  six  to  seven 
feet  apart  each  way,  while  a weaker  growing  sort  on  fair  to 


12 


Washington  Agricultural  Expet  intent  Station 


poor  soil  need  not  be  planted  farther  than  five  to  six  feet 
apart  each  way.  However,  as  a general  rule . six  feet  apart 
each  way,  or  1210  plants  per  acre,  gives  satisfactory  results 
for  most  varieties,  soils,  and  purposes.  Some  of  the  finest 
and  most  productive  patches  in  Western  Washington  are 
planted  in  this  way. 

The  hill  system  has  one  apparently  serious  drawback  in 
that  it  reduces  the  number  of  plants  possible  to  set  per  ^jre, 
from  1840  where  planted  3 by  8 feet  to  1210  plants  where 
planted  6 by  6 feet.  To  the  average  advocate  of  the  hill 
system  this  is  no  drawback,  as  he  is  more  than  able  to  make 
up  in  quality  and  grade  what  he  loses  in  quantity.  The  fol- 
lowing advantages  are  very  apparent  in  this  system : 

1.  Room  for  thorough  tillage  with  horse  cultivators  each 
way  and  even  diagonally  if  so  desired. 

2.  Boom  for  pickers  to  see  and  secure  all  fruit  as  it 
ripens;  therefore,  the  elimination  from  the  cups  of  soft,  unsal- 
able fruit. 

3.  The  maximum  amount  of  sunlight — which  is  essential 
for  the  formation  of  large  buds  and  the  development  of  the 
highest  quality  and  best  size  of  fruit. 

4.  Necessary  room  for  proper  pruning,  thinning,  train- 
ing, etc. 

5.  Economy  and  simplicity  of  supporting  the  canes. 

6.  A more  nearly  perfect  air  drainage,  which  tends  to 
minimize  if  not  eliminate  the  dangers  of  late  spring  frosts 
and  much  of  the  loss  caused  by  bacterial  and  fungus  troubles. 

II— VINY  GROWERS. 

As  a matter  of  convenience  we  have  grouped  the  Ever- 
green, Mammoth  and  Himalaya  Giant  blackberries  and  Logan 
berries  and  called  them  the  viny  growers,  since  they  produce 
long  recumbent,  climbing,  or  trailing  vines.  From  the  nature 
of  their  growth  they  require  an  entirely  different  planting 
plan  and  system  of  training  to  make  satisfactory  cultivation 
and  picking  possible.  Eight  feet  is  a reasonable  distance 


Bulletin  No.  8y — Berries  in  Washington 


13 


Evergreen  Blackberry,  the  latest  and  most  productive  variety  in  cultivation 

apart  for  the  rows,  but  the  plants  in  the  row  require  intervals 
of  from  sixteen  to  twenty-four  feet,  governed  entirely  by  the 
fertility  and  moisture  determinants.  In  good  rich  soil  with 
the  proper  amount  of  moisture  it  is  not  uncommon  to  find 
canes  or  vines  from  fifty  to  sixty  feet  in  length,  while  on  dry 
or  poor  soil  they  may  not  be  more  than  four  or  five  feet.  Other 
things  being  equal  the  longer  and  stronger  cane  that  can  be 
grown  the  more  productive  will  be  the  field.  Many  of  the 
early  planters  made  a mistake  in  using  the  opposite  instead 
of  the  alternate  system  of  planting.  It  is  only  reasonable  to 
assume  that  strong  feeding  plants  will  sooner  or  later  begin 
to  crowd  one  another  when  planted  not  more  than  eight  feet 
apart  and  therefore  for  this  reason  we  find  it  advisable  to  use 
the  alternate  row  system. 

BERRIES  AS  FILLERS  IN  YOUNG  ORCHARDS. 

The  practice  of  using  berries  as  fillers  in  a young  orchard 
is  one  that  requires  careful  consideration.  It  involves  the  same 
principles  that  the  use  of  fillers  in  any  orchard  does  and 
can  be  fairly  treated  only  from  a similar  point  of  view.  The 
profitable  use  of  fillers  depends  more  upon  the  man  that  uses 


14 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


them  than  upon  any  other  single  consideration.  While  it  is 
a safe  proposition  for  some  men,  it  is  extremely  dangerous  for 
others.  The  arguments  may  be  well  summed  up  in  the  follow- 
ing manner:  Fillers  are  a good  thing  in  an  orchard  so  long 
as  they  stimulate  better  tillage  and  in  no  way  interfere  with 
the  growth  or  management  of  an  orchard.  But  under  no  con- 
sideration must  they  be  permitted  to  remain  long  enough  to 
interfere  with  the  pruning,  fertilizing,  spraying,  thinning  and 
harvesting  of  the  orchard  crops.  The  man  is  rarely  to  be 
found  who  will  remove  a good  healthy  productive  filler  before 
it  does  serious  injury  to  the  permanent  tree.  So  long  as  this 
condition  lasts  the  general  use  of  fillers  will  always  be  at- 
tended by  more  or  less  risk. 

There  are  two  general  systems  of  planting  berries  as 
fillers  in  the  orchard.  One  consists  of  adapting  the  continuous 
row  system  to  orchard  conditions  and  the  other  by  making  use 
of  the  hill  system.  Both  systems  are  successfully  used  at  the 
present  time.  However,  for  various  reasons  the  Hill  system 
carried  out  in  the  following  manner  is  preferable:  Plant  the 
fruit  trees  thirty-six  feet  apart  using  the  alternate  system 
and  set  the  berry  plants  six  feet  apart  between  the  fruit  trees 
in  the  rows  as  well  as  between  the  rows.  This  will  allow  the 
planting  of  1180  berry  plants  and  thirty  fruit  trees  per  acre. 

This  method  of  planting  minimizes  the  evils  of  fillers  in  an 
orchard  and  if  properly  cared  for  and  the  bushes  removed  as 
the  trees  require  the  room  large  quantities  of  small  fruit  may 
be  raised  in  conjunction  with  the  growing  of  the  orchard  trees. 
After  the  third  or  fourth  years  all  berry  plants  within  six  feet 
of  the  fruit  trees  must  be  removed  without  fail  and  the  fourth 
or  fifth  years  those  berry  plants  situated  diagonally  on  the 
same  squares  with  the  trees  must  be  removed  and  so  on  until 
all  berry  plants  are  out.  In  so  doing  the  trees  are  given  abun- 
dance of  room  as  they  require  it  and  no  evil  should  result 
from  the  use  of  fillers. 

Where  the  conditions  of  soil  and  climate  are  favorable 
for  each,  this  is  an  excellent  plan  to  use  in  connection  with 


Bulletin  No.  8y — Berries  in  Washington 


15 


the  growing  of  English  walnuts.  Since  walnut  trees  are  grown 
with  longer  stems  and  require  little  or  no  spraying  they  are 
much  more  adapted  to  use  in  connection  with  small  fruit  than 
the  ordinary  orchard  tree. 

TRAINING  AND  STAKING. 

The  manner  of  training  and  staking  is  largely  governed 
by  the  varieties,  system  of  planting,  and  the  method  of  tillage. 
No  single  phase  of  berry  culture  requires  a more  careful  con- 
sideration than  that  of  training  and  staking.  The  neglected 
patch  is  a thing  of  the  past  and  the  up-to-date  culturist  no 
longer  expects  to  gather  successful  crops  without  giving  special 
attention  to  training.  The  conditions  that  exist  in  Western 
Washington  have  been  productive  of  almost  a revolution  in 
the  methods  of  berry  culture  and  while  this  is  more  noticeable 
in  the  methods  of  training  than  in  any  other  particular  yet 
wonderful  strides  have  been  made  in  all  directions. 

There  is  practically  only  one  system  to  follow  for  train- 
ing the  upright  growers  when  they  are  planted  in  hills  and 
that  is  to  set  a light  post  from  five  to  six  feet  high  at  each  hill. 
From  five  to  seven  canes  are  trained  up  and  tied  firmly  to  this 
post  until  they  reach  the  top  when  they  are  topped  and  are 
permitted  to  throw  out  laterals.  This  produces  a well-sup- 
ported compact  hill  that  can  be  easily  cared  for  with  a horse 
cultivator  and  gives  the  fruit  every  opportunity  for  its  fullest 
development  as  well  as  simplifies  picking  very  materially. 

A grower  at  Sumner  employs  an  interesting  and  very 
successful  method  of  training  his  Snyder  blackberries  which 
are  planted  in  hills  six  feet  apart  each  way.  Instead  of  using 
one  light  post  at  each  hill  he  sets  two  from  twelve  to  eighteen 
inches  apart.  While  one  post  is  supporting  the  fruiting  canes 
the  growing  canes  are  being  trained  upon  the  other  and  any 
one  familiar  with  the  Snyder  blackberry  will  at  once  see  that 
this  simplifies  picking  and  training  materially  even  though  it 
does  increase  the  initial  cost  of  staking. 

Whenever  the  continuous  row  plan  of  planting  of  upright 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


1 6 


growers  is  followed,  some  form  of  lateral  support  is  necessary 
to  keep  the  canes  from  leaning  over  into  the  spaces  between 
the  rows  and  interfering  with  cultivation  and  picking.  Various 
materials  from  heavy  wire  to  light  alder  or  even  cedar  rails 
.are  employed  for  this  purpose.  The  best  plan  is  to  set  a single 
line  of  posts  about  sixteen  feet  apart  and  from  five  to  five  and 
<jne-half  feet  high  through  the  middle  of  the  row.  At  three 
feet  from  the  ground  and  at  the  top  of  these  posts  nail  one  by 
three-inch  cross  arms  eighteen  inches  in  length.  Along  the 
outer  and  upper  corners  of  these  arms  heavy  (preferably  No. 
10)  wires  are  stretched.  This  gives  two  wires  on  each  side 
of  the  row  and  forms  an  excellent  simple  method  for  training 
this  kind  of  canes. 

A good  framework 
for  supporting  the 
canes  of  Red  Rasp- 
berries. 


Another  method  that  is  frequently  employed  consists  in 
setting  light  posts  16-18  feet  apart  in  pairs  one  on  each  side 
of  the  row  and  then  fasten  these  together  with  two  cross  bars. 
Upon  these  cross  bars  light  rails  or  poles  are  laid  to  support 
the  canes  much  the  same  as  the  wires  in  the  former  plan.  The 
principal  advantage  of  this  plan  is  that  the  poles  do  not  injure 
the  canes  as  much  as  the  bare  wires. 

A grower  at  Snohomish  uses  a very  satisfactory  method 
for  his  raspberries.  The  plants  are  at  intervals  of  three  feet, 
in  rows  eight  feet  apart.  With  his  conditions  of  soil  and  culti- 
vation he  is  able  to  produce  canes  from  twelve  to  sixteen  feet 


Bulletin  No.  87 — Berries  in  Washington 


i7 


high  and  does  not  top  them  until  he  is  training  them  on  the 
wires  some  time  during  the  winter.  His  system  of  training 
consists  of  setting  a single  line  of  posts  six  feet  high,  16-18  feet 
apart  through  the  middle  of  the  row.  Two  strong  wires  are 
attached  to  these  posts,  one  at  the  top  and  the  other  three  feet 
from  the  ground.  The  canes  from  one  hill  are  gathered  to- 
gether and  gently  bent  over  until  the  tips  touch  the  lower  wire 
usually  about  six  feet  from  the  plant  or  opposite  the  second 
plant,  where  they  are  firmly  tied  to  the  wire.  The  next  plant 
is  likewise  treated  in  the  same  manner  all  the  canes  leaning  in 
the  same  direction  and  so  on  throughout  the  row,  in  fact  the 
whole  patch  is  trained  in  the  same  direction.  The  simplicity, 
ease  of  handling,  and  the  great  amount  of  cane  that  can  be 
saved  in  this  manner,  recommends  this  system  to  many. 


A good  way  to 
support  the 
canes  of 
small  fruits 
in  windy  lo- 
cations 


i8 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


The  best  form  of  support 
for  vine  producing  sorts 


Those  varieties  producing  long  recumbent  or  trailing  vines, 
require  horizontal  support  to  make  cultivation  and  picking  pos- 
sible  under  any  circumstance.  Undoubtedly  the  most  satis- 
factory method  for  our  conditions  consists  in  setting  a single- 
line  of  posts  five  feet  high  and  sixteen  to  eighteen  feet  apart 
in  the  rows.  To  these  posts  nail  two  eighteen-inch  cross  arms, 
one  at  the  top  and  the  other  three  feet  from  the  ground  and 
at  the  ends  of  the  cross  arms  fasten  four  No.  10  wires.  This- 
provides  four  wires  for  each  row.  The  two  upper  wires  act 
as  cables  for  the  growing  vines  while  the  two  lower  ones  serve 
as  supports  for  the  fruiting  vines.  As  soon  as  the  strong  shoots 
reach  the  upper  wures  they  are  carefully  trained  below  them 
and  supported  by  soft  string.  The  growing  tips  must  always 
be  kept  in  an  upright  position  or  the  cane  will  throw  out  many 
undesirable  laterals. 

When  ready  to  lower  the  canes  from  the  upper  to  the 
lower  wires  small  1 by  1 inch  strips  twenty  inches  long  and 
notched  at  each  end  in  such  a manner  so  as  to  fit  over  the  wires, 
are  placed  upon  the  lower  wires  from  eighteen  inches  to  two 
feet  apart.  These  strips  form  a support  for  the  canes  as  they 
are  lowered  and  are  easily  removed  during  the  process  of  clean- 
ing up  and  pruning. 

The  process  of  lowering  the  canes  is  easily  accomplished 
by  cutting  the  cords  which  support  them  and  simply  permitting1 
them  to  rest  upon  the  1 by  1 inch  strips.  This  leaves  the  upper 


19 


Bulletin  No.  8y — Berries  in  Washington 


wire  again  free  for  the  training  of  the  new  crop  of  shoots  and 
when  the  proper  time  comes  these  in  turn  are  lowered  for 
fruiting  on  the  lower  wires. 

While  the  system  may  seem  complex  and  more  or  less 
difficult  to  handle  yet  it  is  very  simple  and  has  many  valuable 
features  even  though  it  does  require  a little  extra  time  during 
training  season.  Some  of  the  especially  valuable  features  are : 

1.  That  the  growing  canes  are  separated  from  the  fruit- 
ing canes  thus  making  picking  much  easier. 

2.  The  growing  canes  being  above  receive  full  benefit  of 
sun  and  for  this  reason  produce  better  canes,  shoots,  and  buds. 

3.  The  process  of  pruning  is  simplified  a hundred  per 

cent. 

4.  It  makes  possible  the  growing  of  a greater  number  of 
plants  per  acre  than  the  ordinary  method. 

These  varieties  are  sometimes  trained  upon  a two-wire  sys- 
tem much  the  same  as  grapes  but  this  compels  the  fruiting 
canes  and  growing  canes  to  grow  together,  which  is  always  a 
very  undesirable  feature. 

PRUNING. 

The  work  of  pruning  berries  naturally  divides  itself  into 
three  heads : First,  the  removal  of  the  old  canes  which  should 
take  place  at  the  close  of  the  harvest  season ; second,  the  pinch- 
ing back  or  summer  pruning  which  is  done  during  the  grow- 
ing season;  and  third,  the  removal  of  surplus  wood  which 
should  be  done  late  in  winter  or  early  in  spring. 

Practically  all  growers  agree  upon  the  method  and  time 
<of  removing  the  old  fruiting  canes  realizing  of  course  that 
they  are  of  no  more  use  to  the  plant  and  that  further  incum- 
brance simply  means  an  excellent  harbor  for  insect  pests  and 
plant  diseases.  In  tender  varieties  it  is  sometimes  thought 
best  to  let  them  remain  until  the  regular  pruning  season  of 
early  spring  in  order  that  they  may  act  as  a protection  to  the 
young  canes. 

Upright  Growers — The  question,  “At  what  height  do  you 


20 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


pinch  back  your  young  raspberry  canes,”  was  asked  a large 
number  of  berry  growers.  The  replies  varied  with  the  local- 
ity, the  man,  and  the  system  of  training  followed,  from  no 
pinching  back  up  to  eighteen  inches.  However,  a large  pro- 
portion of  the  growers  west  of  the  Cascade  mountains  ex- 
pressed the  opinion  that  from  four  to  five  feet  gave  the  best 
results  for  their  conditions.  When  the  canes  are  pinched  back 
at  this  height  it  tends  to  produce  firm  wood  which  is  seldom 
injured  during  the  winter  season. 

In  certain  fields  where  the  canes  were  pinched  back  at 
less  than  four  or  five  feet  they  produced  rather  long  laterals 
which  failed  to  thoroughly  ripen  up  before  winter  and  during 
the  course  of  the  winter  were  severely  injured  or  even  killed, 
while  in  those  fields  where  the  canes  were  “pinched  back” 
high,  or  not  at  all,  the  wood  apparently  ripened  earlier  and 
suffered  little  or  no  injury.  The  probable  reason  for  this  is 
that  the  early  pinching  back  tended  to  throw  the  plant  into 
active  growth  again  rather  than  permit  it  to  assume  a semi- 
dormant  condition. 

In  localities  where  the  maximum  growth  does  not  exceed 
four  or  five  feet  “pinching  back”  at  eighteen  inches  or  even 
no  pinching  back  at  all  has  proven  very  satisfactory. 

Another  very  important  phase  is  the  regular  and  syste- 
matic removal  of  all  suckers  during  the  early  part  of  the  sea- 
son, and  careful  thinning  when  they  are  left  for  the  future 
crop.  Some  growers  keep  the  suckers  out  until  the  middle  of 
June.  While  this  is  advisable  as  far  as  the  present  crop  is 
concerned  it  is  rather  late  to  be  sure  of  producing  good  canes 
before  the  summer  drouth  comes  on  severe  enough  to  injure 
them. 

Viny  Growers — The  vine  producing  sorts  present  rather 
a different  phase  of  pruning.  Instead  of  “pinching  back”  we 
endeavor  to  produce  the  required  number  of  canes  per  hill, 
usually  four,  and  have  them  as  long  and  strong  as  possible 
with  a minimum  number  of  laterals.  In  fact  most  growers 


Bulletin  No.  87 — Berries  in  Washington 


2 


recommend  the  removal  of  all  laterals.  Late  in  winter  or  early 
in  spring  these  long  canes  or  vines  are  cut  back  from  one-fourth 
to  one-third  their  length.  The  stronger  the  canes  are  at  this 
time  the  longer  and  better  will  the  fruit  shoots  be. 

The  Blackcap  varieties  of  raspberries  should  be  pinched 
back  early  in  the  season  in  order  to  compel  them  to  produce 
a strong  framework  for  the  support  of  the  laterals  and  their 
shoots.  Usually  two  or  more  pinchings  are  necessary  to  pro- 
duce good  plants  of  the  cap  sorts. 

DEWBERRIES. 

The  Dewberry  is  one  of  our  recently  introduced  fruit 
plants  and  while  closely  related  to  the  blackberry  it  can  be 
grown  on  a greater  variety  of  soils  and  more  severe  climates 
than  its  tall  relatives,  the  common  blackberries.  It  is  especially 
adapted  to  our  gravelly  soils  where  plenty  of  water  can  be 
supplied  during  the  fruiting  season.  Its  trailing  habits  makes 
it  possible  to  grow  it  where  the  winter  weather  is  too  severe 
for  the  common  blackberry  since  it  is  easily  protected  by  a 
light  mulch  of  straw  leaves  or  any  coarse  litter. 

The  Dewberry  should  be  planted  in  hills  at  least  six  feet 
apart  each  way  and  given  the  same  general  culture  that  rasp- 
berries or  blackberries  are  given.  It  requires  no  summer  prun- 
ing aside  from  the  removal  of  old  fruiting  cane  after  the  crop 
is  harvested  and  while  it  is  generally  grown  without  supports 
better  results  can  be  secured  by  staking  and  training  to  a 
single  stake. 

The  Lucretia  Dewberry  is  the  only  variety  that  has  given 
desirable  results  thus  far  in  our  work  at  the  Station.  But 
this  one  has  been  a splendid  success  in  every  particular.  The 
fruit  is  large,  rich,  juicy,  and  of  excellent  quality.  It  ripens 
from  a week  to  ten  days  earlier  than  the  blackberry  and  with- 
stands dry  weather  much  better.  It  is  naturally  very  pro- 
ductive and  has  brought  good  prices  in  all  the  markets  during 
the  past  three  years. 


22 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


VARIETIES. 

The  following  list  includes  only  such  varieties  as  are 
found  in  home  gardens  and  commercial  plantations.  These 
notes,  upon  which  the  conclusions  are  based,  have  been  col- 
lected from  all  parts  of  the  state,  thus  making  them  more  gen- 
eral than  if  secured  in  any  single  locality : 


“The  Cuthbert”  The  best  general  market  Red  Raspberry 

RED  RASPBERRIES. 

Cuthbert — A chance  seedling  found  by  Thos.  Cuthbert  in 
southeastern  New  York  in  1865.  The  plant  is  one  of  our  best 
growers,  practically  free  from  insect  pests  and  plant  diseases. 
Adapted  to  adverse  conditions  of  all  kinds  except  excessive 
moisture  when  it  occasionally  winter  kills.  Its  deep  rooting 
nature  makes  it  one  of  our  best  dry  land  raspberries.  The 
•canes  are  tall,  clean,  and  strong,  and  can  be  trained  to  single 
stems  or  pinched  back  and  made  to  branch.  The  fruit  is  firm, 
large,  bright  red,  slightly  conical,  of  excellent  quality  and 
stands  shipping  remarkably  well.  While  it  is  not  as  early  as 
some  varieties  yet  it  has  a much  longer  fruiting  season  and  is 
more  productive  than  the  average.  Considering  it  from  many 


Bulletin  No.  8y — Berries  in  Washington 


23; 


A fruiting 
branch  of  the 
“Cuthbert” 


points  of  view  this  is  the  ideal  market  berry. 

Crimson  Beauty — Found  growing  in  a patch  of  Imperials: 
by  Dr.  Stayman  of  Leavenworth,  Kansas.  The  plants  are- 
strong  erect  growers,  practically  free  from  insect  troubles  or 
plant  diseases,  but  never  produce  tall  canes.  The  foliage  is; 
good,  dark  green,  plentiful,  and  healthy.  The  fruit  is  large, 
round,  of  a bright  crimson  color,  but  entirely  too  soft  to  be 
of  commercial  value,  and  while  it  ripens  very  early  and  its 
season  is  comparatively  long  a large  portion  of  the  berries  are- 
poorly  formed  and  irregular,  due  at  least  in  part  to  insufficient 
pollen  at  blooming  time.  If  the  fruit  is  picked  before  it  is 
dead  ripe  it  crumbles  badly  and  if  it  is  not  picked  as  soon  as 
it  is  ripe  it  drops  so  there  is  loss  in  either  case.  As  a whole 
the  variety  is  not  profitable  either  for  home  or  market  use. 

Improved  Superlative — This  is  one  of  the  new  raspberries 
in  western  Washington  and  while  it  has  not  been  generally 
tested  in  many  localities  yet  wherever  planted  it  has  proven- 
very  satisfactory.  The  canes  are  clean,  strong,  early  matur- 
ing, and  very  productive.  The  fruit  is  large,  of  a dark  crim- 


24 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Statioii 


A fruiting 
branch  of  the 
“Antwerp” 


son  color,  firm,  and  of  fairly  good  quality.  It  ships  and  sells 
well  and  on  account  of  its  deep  rooting  nature  it  endures  the 
dry  summers  and  cold  winters  better  than  most  varieties. 

Marlboro — Originated  by  Mr.  A.  J.  Caywood  of  Marlboro, 
N.  Y.,  as  a result  of  several  crosses  with  both  tame  and  wild 
sorts.  The  plant  is  an  exceptionally  strong  grower  and  while 
not  as  tall  as  some  varieties  yet  its  few  strong  canes  are  fre- 
quently more  productive.  The  foliage  is  dark  green,  more  or 
less  rugose,  and  entirely  free  from  disease  and  insect  troubles. 
The  fruit  is  round,  light  red  to  pink  red,  very  showy,  juicy, 
rather  firm  but  sometimes  crumbles.  It  is  not  rich  in  quality, 
but  a very  good  market  sort  in  many  places.  Its  season  is 
medium  to  early  and  usually  very  long  but  not  so  productive 
as  the  Cuthbert.  While  it  is  quite  hardy  it  is  not  adapted  to 
all  kinds  of  soil  nor  yet  to  the  extreme  hot  sun  of  some  places. 

Philadelphia — The  original  plant  was  found  growing  wild 
almost  within  the  limits  of  the  city  of  Philadelphia  over  sixty 
years  ago.  It  is  not  a tall  growler  and  produces  few  canes,  but 
these  are  strong  and  branch  readily  thus  forming  a nice  bush. 


Bulletin  No.  87 — Berries  in  Washington 


25 


The  foljage  is  good,  dark  green  and  healthy,  and  practically 
free  from  insect  pests  and  plant  diseases.  The  fruit  is  rather 
small,  very  soft,  purplish  red,  very  juicy  and  of  good  quality. 
It  begins  to  ripen  the  last  of  June  and  has  a long  season  but 
is  frequently  seriously  injured  by  the  dry  weather  causing  the 
fruit  to  drp  up  and  drop  before  maturing.  The  plants  are  very 
most  productive  variety  we  have  it  is  not  suitable  for  com- 


Marlboro  Raspberry,  a valuable  variety  for  most  rich  soil 

productive  but  on  account  of  the  small  berries  and  low  growing 
habit  of  the  canes  picking  is  slow  and  tedious.  While  it  is  the 
mercial  planting  nor  do  we  recommend  it  for  home  planting. 

Red  Antwerp — Probably  the  oldest  red  raspberry  in  culti- 
vation at  the  present  time.  It  is  a native  of  Europe  that  has 
been  distributed  under  many  names.  While  it  is  a standard 
of  excellence  wherever  raspberries  are  grown  great  care  must 
be  exercised  in  the  selecting  of  plants  for  new  plantations  in 
order  to  avoid  diseased  or  weak  plants.  Many  plantations  of 
the  Antwerp  show  signs  of  weakness  and  disease.  This  must 
be  carefully  guarded  against  or  we  will  soon  lose  this  very 
valuable  sort.  By  a little  careful  selection  of  the  plants  to  be 
used  in  new  plantations  it  is  possible  to  secure  strong  product- 


2b  Washington  Agricultural  Ex  pa iment  Station 


“The  Red  Antwerp”  the  best  early  commercial  red  Raspberry 


ive  plants  that  are  practically  free  from  disease.  Wherever 
the  Antwerp  succeeds,  it  is  medium  to  early,  very  productive 
and  has  tall  vigorous  healthy  canes,  and  good  strong  foliage, 
The  fruit  is  large,  slightly  conical,  dark  red,  with  a dense 
"bloom,  moderately  firm  and  has  a brisk  vinous  flavor.  It  ships 
well  and  is  very  popular  in  the  market. 

Ruby — A seedling  of  the  Marlboro  originating  near  Marl- 
boro, New  York,  about  ten  years  ago.  Although  of  recent 
origin  this  variety  is  rapidly  becoming  known  as  one  of  our 
best  red  raspberries.  The  plants  are  strong  free  growers,  with 
plenty  of  coarse  dark  green  foliage.  The  fruit  is  very  large, 
bright  red,  of  excellent  quality,  ships  well,  and  is  becoming 
very  popular  in  many  markets.  It  begins  to  ripen  the  last 
of  June,  continues  to  fruit  over  a long  season  and  is  not  readily 
injured  by  hot  dry  weather.  During  the  past  three  years  this 
has  been  our  best  red  sort. 

Turner — Originated  by  Prof.  J.  B.  Turner  of  Jacksonville, 
Illinois,  about  seventy-five  years  ago.  The  plants  are  extremely 
hardy,  very  rank  growers,  and  entirely  free  from  plant 
troubles.  The  foliage  is  dark  green  and  practically  free  from 


Bulletin  No.  8y — Berries  in  Washington 


27 


insect  pests  and  plant  diseases.  The  fruit  is  large,  soft,  juicy, 
bright  red,  sweet  to  sub-acid  and  of  fair  quality.  It  begins  to 
ripen  the  last  of  June  but  is  soon  affected  by  the  dry  weather 
causing  it  to  dry  up  or  drop  early.  While  the  fruit  is  too  soft 
for  shipping  yet  this  is  a valuable  sort  for  severe  situations 
and  early  fruit  for  home  use. 

YELLOW  RASPBERRIES. 

Caroline — Originated  by  S.  P.  Carpenter  of  New  Rochelle, 
N.  Y.,  from  seeds  of  the  Brinkle’s  Orange.  The  plants  are 
fairly  strong,  erect,  entirely  free  from  insect  pests  and  plant 
diseases,  but  not  as  rank  growers  as  other  varieties.  The  foliage 
is  good,  dark  green,  and  abundant.  The  fruit  is  medium  sized, 
almost  round,  yellow,  with  a faint  tinge  of  red,  very  juicy, 
tart,  and  entirely  too  soft  to  be  of  commercial  value.  The  plant 
is  very  productive  and  if  given  the  best  of  care  will  produce 
a fair  grade  of  fruit  but  it  soon  deteriorates  if  neglected.  Like 
all  other  yellow  fruited  varieties  it  is  not  profitable  as  market 
sort,  there  being  no  demand  for  yellow  raspberries. 

Golden  Queeh — A yellow  fruited  form  of  the  Cuthbert 
found  by  Ezra  Stokes  of  Berlin,  N.  J.  The  plant  and  canes 
closely  resemble  the  Cuthbert  but  do  not  seem  to  be  quite  as 
thrifty  or  as  productive  as  the  Cuthbert.  The  fruit  is  round- 
ish oblong,  firm,  of  a clear  yellow  color,  of  excellent  flavor, 
rather  sweet,  and  stands  shipping  remarkably  well.  But  there 
is  practically  no  call  for  a yellow  raspberry  in  our  markets 
and  while  it  is  excellent  for  home  use  it  should  not  be  planted 
for  market  purposes.  Its  season  of  ripening  is  about  the  same 
as  the  Cuthbert. 

BLACK  RASPBERRIES. 

Gregg — Was  found  wild  near  Aurora,  Indiana,  by  Messrs. 
R.  and  I.  Gregg  for  whom  it  was  named.  It  is  probably  our 
most  popular  and  best  known  black-cap  raspberry  and  while 
it  has  the  undesirable  habit  of  varying  in  fruiting  season  and 
size  of  fruit  yet  this  can  in  a measure  be  avoided  by  careful 


28 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


selection  of  planting  stock.  The  plants  are  vigorous,  free 
from  disease,  hardy  and  very  productive.  The  fruit  is  medium 
to  large,  black,  firm,  rather  dry  and  sweet  when  fully  ripe. 
It  is  very  popular  as  a market  berry  and  for  drying  purposes. 
When  grown  on  moist  land  it  is  sometimes  troubled  with  an- 
thracnose  and  occasionally  winter  kills  but  this  is  not  true 
when  grown  in  dry  land. 

Kansas.  Originated  by  Mr.  A.  H.  Griesa,  of  Lawrence, 
Kansas.  This  is  considered  one  of  our  best  black  cap  varieties, 
due  in  part  to  its  vigorous,  strong  canes  and  plants  which  make 
it  very  desirable,  and  also  its  resistance  to  disease,  summer 
drouth  and  severe  winters.  Its  fruit  is  medium  to  large,  of  a 
dark  purple  color,  and  fair  quality.  It  ripens  about  a week 
earlier  than  the  Gregg,  is  very  productive  and  ranks  very  high 
either  for  home  or  market  purposes. 

Burkhart.  A chance  seedling  found  LbSiit  eight  years 
ago,  upon  the  farm  of  Rev.  F.  Walden,  of  ZflSffl,  Washington. 
The  stock  was  turned  over  to  M.  E.  Burkhart,  who  named 
the  plant  and  is  now  disseminating  it.  It  is  supposed  to  be  a 
seedling  of  the  Gregg,  which  it  resembles  in  some  ways,  but  is 
far  superior  to  it  in  others.  The  plant  is  very  strong,  a rapid 
grower,  has  plenty  of  large,  dark  green  leaves  and  is  free  from 
diseases.  Its  strong,  deep-growing  roots  enables  it  to  with- 
stand the  drouth  better  and  continue  to  bear  long  after  other 
sorts  have  dried  up  or  ceased  to  be  productive.  The  fruit  is 
large,  pure  black,  firm,  of  excellent  quality  and  is  borne  in 
large  bunches.  The  plants  are  very  productive.  For  the  past 
three  years  the  Burkhart  has  been  the  best  black  cap  in  our 
plots.  It  is  one  of  the  most  promising  new  sorts  that  has  been 
introduced  in  years. 

Mammoth  Cluster.  Originated  from  the  old  Miami  at 
Collinsville,  Ind.  It  has  been  sold  under  various  names,  the 
most  common  of  which  is  the  McCormick.  It  is  thought  by 
•some  to  be  the  largest'  and  best  black  cap  in  cultivation  but 


Bulletin  No.  87 — Berries  in  Washington 


29 


most  growers  seem  to  favor  the  Gregg.  The  plant  is  strong, 
vigorous,  and  very  productive.  Its  fruit  is  large,  firm,  juicy, 
dark  purple,  black  and  sweet. 

Ohio.  It  is  not  definitely  known  when  or  where  this  va- 
riety originated.  But  it  has  attracted  wide  attention  as  a 
market  berry  in  many  parts  of  the  United  States.  While  it  is 
valuable  for  use  in  its  fresh  condition,  its  main  value  seems 
to  be  in  its  adaption  to  evaporating  purposes.  On  account 
of  its  extreme  seediness,  more  pounds  per  bushel  of  dry  ma- 
terial may  be  secured  from  this  variety  than  from  any  other 
raspberry.  The  plant  is  strong,  vigorous,  hardy,  and  pro- 
ductive, while  its  fruit  is  large,  dark  purple  black,  firm,  of  good 
quality  and  ripens  from  the  middle  to  the  last  of  July,  being 
what  is  generally  termed  a medium  season  berry. 

A spray  of 
“Evergreen 
Blackberry” 


BLACKBERRIES. 

Early  Mammoth.  A supposed  hybrid  of  the  Wilson  black- 
berry and  the  Eastern  dewberry.  The  plant  is  a very  vigorous 
grower  of  the  viny  group,  frequently  producing  vines  twenty 


30 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


to  twenty-five  feet  in  length  in  a single  season.  While  it  has 
not  been  fully  tested,  it  has  proved  itself  to  be  the  earliest 
blackberry  in  cultivation.  The  foliage  is  good,  plentiful,  and 
free  from  pests.  The  fruit  is  very  large,  pure  black,  rich, 
juicy,  sweet,  and  of  excellent  quality.  It  is  probably  too  tender 
for  exposed  or  severe  situations  but  does  well  west  of  the 
Cascade  mountains. 

Evergreen,  or  Oregon  Everbearing  Blackberry.  The  origin 
of  this  plant  is  a much  mooted  question;  however,  it  is  prob- 
ably a form  of  the  common  European  Rubus  fruticosus.  It 
is  a very  vigorous  grower  of  the  viny  group  whose  canes  are 
more  or  less  perennial  in  mild  climates.  For  many  years  it 
has  been  used  as  an  ornamental  plant  on  account  of  its  semi- 
evergreen habit  and  beautifully  cut  foliage.  The  fruit  is 
medium  to  large,  black,  ships  well  and  of  excellent  quality.  It 
is  our  best  late  and  most  productive  sort. 

Himalaya  Giant.  Originated  by  Luther  Burbank  from  seed 
secured  in  the  Himalaya  mountains.  It  is  a very  rank  grower 
of  the  viny  group,  frequently  producing  canes  from  twenty 
to  thirty  feet  in  length  and  resembling  in  many  ways  the 
Evergreen  blackberry.  The  fruit  is  medium  sized,  black, 
juicy,  of  good  quality,  and  ships  remarkably  well.  It  is  borne 
in  clusters  which  make  picking  easy  and  the  plants  very  pro- 
ductive. The  deep  rooting  habit  of  the  plant  and  earliness  of 
its  fruiting  season  both  tend  to  make  it  a valuable  sort  for 
commercial  work.  While  it  has  never  been  given  a satisfactory 
trial  at  the  Station,  we  are  of  the  opinion  that  it  would  tend  to 
severely  winter  kill. 

Kittatinny.  Supposed  to  have  originated  from  a chance 
seedling  found  in  the  Kittatinny  mountains  of  New  Jersey.  It 
is  one  of  our  oldest  varieties  of  blackberries  and,  while  a very 
popular  sort,  it  is  not  entirely  hardy  in  most  parts  of  the  state. 
The  plants  are  fairly  vigorous,  moderately  productive,  but  very 
subject  to  rust.  The  fruit  is  very  attractive,  black,  juicy,  pleas- 
ant flavored,  and  very  good  in  quality.  It  should  not  be 


Bulletin  No.  87 — Berries  in  Washington 


3i 


planted  in  any  but  the  western  part  of  the  state. 

Snyder.  A variety  found  growing  wild  in  northern  Indi- 
ana over  fifty  years  ago.  It  is  one  of  our  oldest  and  most 
reliable  market  varieties  and  while  it  has  certain  objectionable 
features,  such  as  sunburn  and  blackberry  blight,  in  certain 
localities,  yet  there  is  no  other  single  variety  that  fills  the 
place  now  held  by  the  Snyder.  It  is  an  erect  grower,  produc- 
ing tall,  vigorous,  healthy  canes,  with  large  strong  foliage. 
The  fruit  is  medium  sized,  from  brownish  black  to  pure  black, 
juicy,  pleasant  flavored,  of  good  quality,  and  ships  well.  Under 
favorable  conditions  it  is  early  and  very  productive. 

Stone’s  Hardy.  A chance  seedling  found  about  twenty 
years  ago.  While  it  resembles  the  Snyder  in  many  respects 
yet  it  is  not  so  popular  nor  commonly  grown.  The  plants  are 
strong,  vigorous,  hardy,  upright  growers  but  not  average 
as  tall  as  the  Snyder.  The  fruit  is  medium  sized,  juicy,  almost 
black,  and  of  good  quality  and  flavor.  Where  it  is  not  possible 
to  grow  some  of  the  more  productive  late  sorts  this  variety 
should  be  given  a trial. 

HYBRIDS. 

Logan  Berry.  A hybrid  of  the  Red  Antwerp  raspberry  and 
A native  blackberry  or  dewberry  of  California  produced  by 


“The 

Loganberry” 


32 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


Judge  J.  H.  Logan,  of  Santa  Cruz,  Cal.  This  is  a remarkable 
plant  in  all  parts  of  Washington  for  productiveness,  hardiness, 
freedom  from  disease  and  insect  pests,  and  ability  to  with- 
stand drouth.  It  is  a rank,  coarse  grower,  producing  long 
viny  canes  and  large  healthy  leaves.  It  occasionally  kills 
back  in  the  winter  but  this  can  be  avoided  by  slight  protection. 
The  fruit  is  very  large,  frequently  an  inch  and  a half  to  one 
and  three-fourths  inches  in  length,  shaped  much  like  a black- 
berry and  of  a dull  crimson-red  color.  Its  flavor  is  a combina- 
tion of  the  flavors  of  its  parents  and  while  some  people  do  not 
care  for  it  others  prize  it  very  highly,  not  only  in  its  fresh 
state  but  also  for  canning,  jelly,  etc.  It  ships  well  if  picked 
before  it  becomes  dead  ripe.  The  plants  require  severe  pruning 
in  order  to  keep  them  in  shape  and  systematic  training  to  make 
picking  possible. 

Phenomenal  Berry.  A hybrid  of  the  Cuthbert  raspberry 
and  a native  dew  or  blackberry  of  California  produced  by 
Luther  Burbank  of  California.  The  Station  has  not  had  the 
opportunity  to  give  it  a fair  trial  as  yet  but  comparative  tests 
are  now  being  made.  The  plant  resembles  very  closely  the 
Logan  Berry.  Growers  who  have  produced  it  side  by  side  with 
the  Logan  Berry  in  western  Washington  pronounce  it  superior 
to  the  latter  in  color,  flavor,  hardiness,  vigor,  shipping  quality 
and  picking  season.  It  is  said  to  take  on  more  of  the  raspberry 
flavor  and  is  decidedly  more  desirable  for  general  purposes. 


State  College  of  Washington 

Agricultural  Experiment  Station 

Pullman,  Washington 


DEPARTMENT  OF  CHEMISTRY 

I.  Lime  as  a Fertilizer,  by  R.  W.  Thatcher 

II.  Farm  Practices  in  Applying  Land  Plaster 
in  Western  Oregon  and  Western  Wash- 
ington, by  Byron  Hunter 


BULLETIN  NO.  88 
1909 


All  bulletins  of  this  Station  sent  free  to  citizens  of  the  State  on  application 
to  the  diredor. 


BOARD  OF  CONTROL 


LEE  A.  Johnson,  President , Sunnyside 
F.  J.  Barnard,  Treasurer , Seattle 

E.  A.  Bryan,  Secretary  ex  officio,  Pullman 

President  of  the  College 

J.  J.  Browne,  Spokane 

Dr.  J.  S.  Anderson,  Dayton 

Peter  McGregor,  Colfax 


STATION  STAFF. 


R.  W.  Thatcher,  M.  A., 

- Director  and  Chemist 

Elton  Fulmer,  M.  A., 

State  Chemist 

S.  B.  Nelson,  D.  V.  M., 

Veterinarian 

O.  L.  Waller,  Ph.  M.,  - 

Irrigation  Engineer 

R.  K.  Beattie,  A.  M., 

Botanist 

Walter  S.  Thornber,  M.  S.  - 

Horticulturist 

A.  L.  Melander,  M.S.  - 

Entomologist 

George  Severance,  B.  S., 

Agronomist 

C.  W.  Lawrence,  B.  S.  - 

Cerealist 

W.  H.  Lawrence,  M.  S., 

- Plant  Pathologist 

W.  T.  McDonald,  M.  S.  A.  - 

- Animal  Husbandman 

C.  C.  Tiiom,  M.  S., 

Soil  Physicist 

W.  E.  Ralston,  D.  V.  M.,  - 

- Assistant  Veterinarian 

W.  T.  Shaw,  B.  S., 

Assistant  Zoologist 

H.  B.  Humphrey,  Ph.  D., 

Assistant  Botanist 

George  A.  Olson,  M.  S. 

Assistant  Chemist 

Alex  Carlyle, 

Assistant  Cerealist 

PART  I. 


Lime  as  a Fertilizer 


By  R.  W.  THATCHER. 

Lime  in  one  form  or  another  is  almost  universally  used 
as  a fertilizer.  Its  value  for  this  purpose  has  been  known  for 
many  centuries,  as  early  Latin  writings  show  that  liming  of 
the  soil  was  practiced  by  the  Romans  more  than  two  thousand 
years  ago.  In  many  European  countries  liming  of  soils  has 
long  been,  and  is  still,  regularly  practiced. 

BENEFICIAL  EFFECTS  OF  LIME  ON  SOILS. 

Lime  as  a fertilizer  may  act  either  directly  as  a plant  food 
itself  or  indirectly  by  rendering  other  plant  food  more 
available. 

As  a plant  food  itself,  lime  is  essential  to  all  forms  of 
plant  growth,  being  utilized  some  way  by  the  plant  to  aid 
in  the  production  of  cell-walls  or  woody  fibre  material.  If 
lime  should  be  wholly  lacking  in  any  soil,  even  if  all  other 
essential  elements  were  present  in  abundance  crops  could  not 
make  normal  growth  on  it.  This  is  particularly  true  of  the 
legumes  or  clover  crops  of  all  kinds,  including  peas,  beans, 
vetches,  etc.  The  amount  of  lime  required  per  acre  for  such 
crops  is  nearly,  if  not  quite  as  large  as  their  potash  require- 
ment, and  for  such  crops  lime  as  a direct  fertilizer  is  just  as 


4 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


important  as  any  other  of  the  elements  which  are  more  com- 
monly used  for  fertilizer  purposes.  Very  sandy  soils,  or  those 
derived  from  granite  rocks  are  particularly  apt  to  be  deficient 
in  lime,  and  the  fertility  of  such  soils,  especially  for  the  “lime- 
loving”  crops  mentioned  above,  may  often  be  materially 
increased  by  the  application  of  some  form  of  lime  in  which  it 
is  immediately  available  to  plants. 

The  amount  of  lime  required  as  plant  food  by  most 
crops  other  than  legumes  is  comparatively  small,  however,  and 
there  are  very  few  soils  which  need  the  application  of  lime  for 
plant  food  purposes  for  ordinary  field  crops.  But  as  an  indi- 
rect fertilizer  lime  is  beneficial  to  a great  many  different  types 
of  soils  and  for  a variety  of  purposes. 

Lime  may  act  beneficially  on  soils  either  chemically  or 
physically  or  both.  Chemically,  it  neutralizes  acidity  (or 
“sourness”),  aids  bacterial  action  especially  nitrification,  and 
helps  to  liberate  other  elements  of  plant  food  from  unavailable 
forms.  Physically,  it  improves  capillarity  and  increases  the 
water-holding  capacity  of  nearly  all  kinds  of  soils,  tends  to 
improve  the  friability  of  clay,  and  to  prevent  washing  of  silt 
or  sandy  soils.  When  vegetation  decays  it  produces  organic 
acids.  In  soils  deficient  in  lime  these  acids  may  accumulate 
in  such  quantities  as  to  be  injurious  to  crops.  Many  agricul- 
tural plants  are  especially  sensitive  to  such  acids  and  grow 
very  poorly  on  “sour”  soils.  Lime,  in  either  the  caustic,  water- 
slaked  or  air-slaked  forms  will  combine  with  and  neutralize 
the  harmful  effect  of  these  acids,  thus  greatly  improving  the 
fertility  of  the  soil,  provided  it  is  sufficiently  supplied  with 
other  necessary  elements  of  plant  food. 

Furthermore,  the  bacteria  which  cause  decay  and  fermen- 
tation in  the  soil,  rendering  all  forms  of  plant  food  more  avail- 
able, work  best  in  soils  of  neutral  or  alkaline  reaction,  and 
also  need  lime  for  their  own  plant  food  requirements,  hence 
a sufficient  supply  of  lime  is  necessary  in  order  to  insure  this 
beneficial  bacterial  growth.  This  is  particularly  true  of  the 


Bulletin  No.  88 — Lime  as  a bertilizer 


5 


bacteria  which  cause  the  change  of  nitrogen  in  decaying  vege- 
tation into  the  forms  in  which  it  is  available  to  plants.  This 
process  (known  as  nitrification)  consists  in  the  breaking  down 
of  the  complex  organic  materials  which  are  present  in  the 
decaying  vegetation  or  humus,  and  changing  of  the  nitrogen 
which  they  contain  into  nitrites  or  nitrates,  in  which  form  it 
can  be  taken  up  through  plant  roots  and  used  as  plant  food. 
These  changes  proceed  by  several  different  stages,  each  one 
of  which  is  brought  about  by  certain  definite  bacterial  growth. 
Since  nitrogen  is  unquestionably  one  of  the  most  essential,  if 
not  the  most  critical,  element  of  plant  growth,  and  since  it  can 
become  available  in  the  soil  only  through  bacterial  action, 
which  in  turn  depends  upon  the  presence  in  the  soil  of  a suf- 
ficient amount  of  lime  to  supply  favorable  conditions  for  bac- 
terial growth,  the  importance  of  lime  in  the  soil  as  an  aid  to 
the  process  of  nitrification  can  hardly  be  overestimated. 

The  addition  of  lime  to  soils  containing  potash  in  unavail- 
able forms  results  in  liberation  of  the  potash  in  forms  in  which 
plants  can  use  it.  In  soils  deficient  in  active  lime,  the  phos- 
phoric acid  originally  present  or  that  added  as  fertilizer  may 
combine  with  iron  or  alumina  and  form  compounds  in  which 
it  is  of  very  little  or  no  use  to  plants.  The  addition  of  lime 
to  such  soils  prevents  the  formation  of  such  compounds  and 
may,  in  part  at  least,  free  the  phosphoric  acid  from  such  com- 
binations if  already  formed.  The  beneficial  action  of  land 
plaster  on  many  western  soils  is  doubtless  explained  by  its 
effect  in  liberating  potash  and  phosphoric  acid  from  unavail- 
able forms.  Laboratory  tests  on  such  soils  have  shown  that 
small  amounts  of  land  plaster,  or  gypsum,  are  very  active  in 
rendering  nitrogen,  potash,  and  phosphoric  acid  soluble  in 
soil  water,  thus  making  them  easily  available  as  plant  food. 
The  danger  of  using  excessive  amounts  of  this  kind  of  lime  fer- 
tilizer is  also  shown  by  these  experiments,  since  if  larger 
amounts  of  these  valuable  elements  of  fertility  than  can  be 
used  up  by  a crop  during  the  growing  season  are  rendered 


6 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


soluble  in  the  soil  water,  they  will  almost  inevitably  be  lost 
from  the  soil  by  leaching. 

The  physical  action  of  lime  on  many  soils  is  sometimes  of 
nearly  as  great  importance  as  the  various  chemical  effects 
described  above.  Heavy  clay  soils  in  particular  are  greatly 
improved  in  texture,  friability,  permeability  to  moisture,  and 
water-holding  capacity,  by  liming.  The  lime  cements  together 
the  fine  clay  particles,  forming  compound  particles,  which  are 
more  like  sand  grains  and  give  to  the  clay  soil  more  of 
the  properties  of  a fine  silt  or  loam.  Very  sandy  soils  are 
also  improved  by  an  application  of  lime,  which  increases  their 
water-holding  capacity  by  its  cementing  action.  The  improve- 
ment in  physical  condition  in  very  clayey  and  very  sandy  soils 
is  frequently  sufficient  to  warrant  the  use  of  lime  fertilizers. 

FORMS  OF  LIME  WHICH  MAY  BE  USED  AS  A 
FERTILIZER. 

The  term  “fertilizer  lime”  usually  means  land  plaster  or 
ground  gypsum.  This  is  sulphate  of  lime,  a neutral  form  hav- 
ing no  alkaline  properties.  When  heated  to  a high  temperature 
to  drive  off  the  water  which  it  contains  it  becomes  “plaster 
of  Paris”  which  readily  takes  up  water  again  and  “sets”  into 
ft  very  hard  mass.  Land  plaster  is  the  proper  form  of  lime 
to  use  as  fertilizer  where  its  direct  effect  as  plant  food  or  its 
indirect  effect  in  liberating  potash  are  desired.  It  must  be  used 
sparingly  or  losses  of  excessive  available  fertility  by  leaching 
may  occur.  One  hundred  pounds  per  acre  is  as  large  an 
amount  as  is  often  safe  to  use.  It  must  be  applied  every  year, 
since  its  beneficial  effects  are  immediate  and  do  not  extend 
over  from  season  to  season.  It  must  be  evenly  applied,  if  the 
best  results  are  to  be  obtained.  This  requires  the  use  of  a fer- 
tilizer spreader,  since  it  is  impossible  to  spread  such  small 
amounts  of  material  evenly  by  hand.  Implements  for  this  pur- 
pose are  described  in  Part  II  of  this  bulletin. 

For  purposes  of  neutralizing  acid  soils,  improving  the  tex- 


Bulletin  No.  88— Lime  as  a Fertilizer 


7 


ture  of  heavy  clays,  etc.,  some  alkaline  form  of  lime  is  neces- 
sary. This  may  be  either  caustic  or  “quick”  lime,  slaked 
lime  or  air-slacked  lime.  Caustic  or  fresh  burned  lime  is  the 
most  concentrated  form  but  is  difficult  to  distribute  evenly 
since  it  is  hard  and  lumpy  and  not  easily  ground  to  a fine  pow- 
der. The  best  way  to  use  quick  lime  as  a fertilizer  is  to  pile 
it  in  small  heaps  of  say  a bushel  in  a place,  cover  with  a few 
shovelfuls  of  earth,  then  throw  a pailful  of  water  on  the  heap 
and  let  stand  over  night.  The  next  day  the  lime  will  be  slaked 
to  a very  fine  powder,  which  can  be  easily  distributed  over  the 
land  with  a shovel.  The  piles  should  be  placed  close  enough 
together  so  as  to  give  the  desired  treatment  per  acre.  The 
amount  of  lime  to  be  used  per  acre  depends  entirely  upon  the 
degree  of  acidity  or  other  qualities  which  it  is  desired  to  neu- 
tralize. One  to  two  tons  per  acre  are  quite  commonly  applied. 
The  exact  lime  requirement  of  any  soil  can  only  be  determined 
by  chemical  analysis.  After  the  soil  is  once  completely  neu- 
tralized it  never  again  needs  very  heavy  applications  of  lime, 
fifty  to  one  hundred  pounds  per  acre  applied  about  once  every 
five  years  usually  being  sufficient.  Air-slaked  lime,  if  avail- 
able, can  be  used  instead  of  caustic  lime  for  purpose  of  neu- 
tralization, but  requires  nearly  twice  as  heavy  applications  to 
accomplish  the  same  results,  since  it  is  partly  carbonate  of 
lime  and  contains  only  50  to  80  per  cent  pure  lime. 

In  many  localities  fine  ground  or  pulverized  limestone,  vari- 
ous sea-shells,  and  even  marl  are  used  as  top-dressings  upon 
the  soil  with  beneficial  results.  These  are  all  carbonates  of 
lime,  marl  containing  also  varying  proportions  of  clay.  These 
forms  of  fertilizer  lime  are  most  beneficial  on  light,  sandy  soils 
where  they  perform  the  functions  of  fine  clay  as  well  as  being 
beneficial  chemical  constituents  of  the  soil.  They  may  be  used 
in  unlimited  amounts  as  there  are  no  conditions  under  which 
limestone  up  to  several  hundred  tons  per  acre  is  injurious  to 
soil  or  crop.  On  the  other  hand  it  is  everywhere  recognized  as 
a valuable  component  of  the  soil. 


I3 ART  II. 


Farm  Pra&ices  in  Applying  Land  Planter 
in  Western  Oregon  and  Western 
Washington. 


By  BYRON  HUNTER. 

Assistant  Agriculturist,  Farm  Management  Investigations,  U.  S.  Dept,  of  Agricuiture. 

Land  plaster  is  now  used  in  Western  Oregon  and  Western 
Washington,  especially  in  the  Willamette  Valley,  as  a fertilizer 
for  leguminous  crops.  It  is  sometimes  used  on  vetch  when 
grown  on  poor  land,  but  its  principal  use  is  on  red  and  alsike 
clover.  If  sown  early  enough  to  be  dissolved  by  the  rains,  land 
plaster  materially  increases  the  yield  of  all  leguminous  crops 
in  this  section.  It  gives  to  clover  a green,  healthy,  vigorous 
appearance,  while  untreated  clover  is  often  yellowish  and  sickly 
looking.  When  no  plaster  is  used,  grasses,  sorrel,  and  other 
weeds  have  a strong  tendency  to  crowd  out  the  clover.  Where 
the  plaster  is  properly  applied,  on  the  other  hand,  the  clover 
grows  rapidly  and  holds  the  weeds  in  check  much  better. 

Land  plaster  is  usually  applied  in  the  early  spring  as  soon  as 
the  ground  is  dry  enough  to  be  run  over  without  being  injured. 
Farmers  who  pasture  their  clover  in  the  spring  with  sheep  to 
retard  its  development  so  that  haymaking  will  occur  after  the 
June  rains  are  over  almost  invariably  apply  their  plaster  dur- 
ing March.  But  if  plaster  is  applied  in  the  early  spring  to 
clover  that  can  not  be  retarded  by  pasturing,  the  crop  grows 


Bulletin  No.  88 — Applying  Land  Plasta 


9 


vigorously  and  matures  for  hay  early  in  June.  Rains  are  not 
infrequent  at  this  season  of  the  year  and  haymaking  is  often 
difficult.  For  these  reasons  plaster  is  sometimes  applied  the 
last  of  April  or  the  first  of  May  so  that  the  crop  will  mature 
a little  later. 

The  amount  of  plaster  used  varies  from  30  to  100  pounds 
per  acre.  While  some  apply  as  high  as  100  pounds  per  acre, 
farmers  generally  agree  that  from  50  to  60  is  sufficient  for  a 
hay  crop,  provided  the  plaster  is  evenly  distributed.  A heavy 
application  of  plaster  causes  a growth  of  too  much  straw  for 
a seed  crop  of  clover  and  from  30  to  40  pounds  is  generally  con- 
sidered enough  by  seed  growers.  An  application  of  from  30  to 
40  pounds  of  plaster  to  young  clover  is  also  very  beneficial. 
The  clover  starts  better,  makes  a better  stand  and  a heavier 
growth  in  the  fall.  When  clover  is  sown  in  the  spring  with 
grain  a heavy  application  of  plaster  causes  the  clover  to  grow 
too  vigorously.  Being  shaded  by  the  grain  the  stems  are  tall 
and  slender.  Under  such  conditions  the  hot  sun  may  burn  the 
clover  and  destroy  the  stand  when  the  grain  is  cut.  Only  light 
applications  of  plaster  should,  therefore,  be  made  when  clover 
is  sown  with  grain  in  the  spring. 

With  but  few  exceptions  land  plaster  is  distributed  by 
hand  in  Western  Washington  and  Western  Oregon.  It  is  either 
distributed  from  a sack  carried  by  the  sower  or  from  a box  or 
hopper  in  the  back  end  of  a wagon.  It  is  very  difficult  to  sow 
plaster  by  hand.  Too  much  is  usually  applied  in  the  middle 
and  not  enough  on  the  margins  of  each  strip  sown.  The  wind 
blows  the  plaster  and  it  is  very  difficult  to  keep  from  applying 
it  in  streaks.  The  growth  of  the  clover  indicates  just  how  the 
plaster  was  applied.  If  it  is  distributed  evenly  the  growth  of 
the  crop  is  quite  uniform  over  the  field;  but  if  distributed  in 
streaks  the  clover  also  grows  in  streaks.  Where  little  or  no 
plaster  falls,  sorrel,  grasses,  and  other  weeds  often  constitute 
the  principal  part  of  the  growth.  (See  Fig.  1.) 


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Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


Fig.  I.  This  figure  illustrates  the  effect  of  land  plaster  on 
clover.  The  dark  streaks  on  each  side  of  the  figure  show  the 
heavy  growth  of  the  clover  where  the  plaster  was  applied.  On 
the  light  streak  in  the  center  of  the  figure  where  no  plaster  was 
applied  the  growth  of  clover  is  very  scant. 

Sowing  plaster  by  hand  is  very  disagreeable.  The  sower 
breathes  large  quantities  of  the  fine.  dust.  It  gets  into  his  eyes 
and  all  over  his  person.  Few  hired  men  are  willing  to  do  the 
work  and  the  farmer  usually  has  to  do  it  himself.  In  the 
attempt  to  get  it  on  evenly  the  sower  usually  gets  on  from  one 
and  one-half  to  two  times  as  much  plaster  as  is  necessary.  This 
waste  amounts  to  from  20  to  50  pounds  per  acre.  Another 
advantage  in  having  the  plaster  distributed  evenly  is  the 
increase  in  the  yield  of  the  crop.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  clover 
yields  one-half  ton  more  hay  per  acre  where  the  plaster  is 
evenly  distributed  than  where  the  distribution  is  uneven. 
Again,  the  clover  comes  on  vigorously  all  over  the  field  and 
holds  the  weeds  in  check  much  better  when  the  plaster  is  evenly 
distributed. 


Bulletin  No.  88 — Applying  Land  Plaster 


1 1 


During  the  past  season  the  writer  made  a study  of  farm 
methods  of  applying  land  plaster  in  the  region  under  discus- 
sion. Farmers  were  found  in  different  localities  who  have 
worked  out  some  very  satisfactory  devices  for  this  purpose. 
The  object  of  this  bulletin  is  to  describe  these  implements  that 
other  farmers  may  profit  by  the  experience  of  these  men.  It 
is  hoped  that  the  descriptions  given  herewith  are  sufficiently 
clear  to  enable  any  farmer  who  is  reasonably  handy  with  tools 
to  construct,  at  a nominal  cost,  an  efficient  implement  for  dis- 
tributing land  plaster. 

KOON’S  LAND  PLASTER  DISTRIBUTOR. 

Several  years  ago  Mr.  Clarence  Koon,  of  Lane  County,  Ore- 
gon, bought  a wheelbarrow  grass  seeder  with  which  to  sow  his 
clover  and  alfalfa  seed.  He  conceived  the  idea  of  remodeling 
it  and  converting  it  into  an  implement  for  distributing  land 
plaster.  He  removed  the  seed  box  and  replaced  it  with  a larger 
and  heavier  box.  The  groove  in  the  bottom  of  the  box  was 
enlarged  until  it  was  three-fourths  of  an  inch  square.  The  feed 
holes  in  the  bottom  of  the  groove  were  increased  in  size  until 
they  were  one-half  inch  in  diameter.  A five-eighths  inch  feed 
rope  was  used  on  the  box  instead  of  the  small  one.  With  a 
little  practice  he  soon  learned  to  adjust  the  feed  to  sow  any 
amount  desired.  The  implement  as  remodeled  did  excellent 
work,  but  the  weight  of  the  box  and  plaster  made  it  difficult  to 
run  by  hand.  The  wheelbarrow  was  not  strong  enough  to  stand 
this  extra  weight  so  it  had  to  be  strengthened  where  possible. 
After  using  this  device  for  two  years  Mr.  Koon  remodeled  the 
oox  and  attached  it  to  a road  cart. 


12 


Washington  A gi  {cultural  Experiment  Station 


Fig.  II.  An  implement  for  distributing  land  plaster. 
Devised  by  Mr.  Clarence  Koon,  Lane  Co.,  Oregon. 


The  box  or  hopper  for  holding  the  plaster  is  14  feet  long 
outside  measure.  The  bottom  board  of  the  box  is  l1/^  inches 
thick  and  6%  inches  wide.  A rabbet  three-fourths  of  an  inch 
deep  and  2^  inches  wide  is  cut  in  the  upper  front  edge  of  the 
bottom  board  throughout  its  entire  length.  (See  Fig.  3.)  The 
board  forming  the  front  of  the  box  is  three-fourths  of  an  inch 
thick  and  5 % inches  wide.  The  under  edge  of  the  front  board 
is  nailed  to  the  middle  of  the  rabbeted  edge  of  the  bottom.  This 
leaves  a groove  three-fourths  of  an  inch  square  in  the  front  of 
the  bottom  of  the  box,  and  a lip  three-fourths  of  an  inch  wide 
on  the  outside  upon  which  the  bow  slides.  In  the  bottom  of 
the  groove  are  one-half  inch  holes  three  inches  apart  through 
which  the  plaster  passes  as  it  is  being  distributed.  The  groove 
is  covered  with  a heavy  piece  of  galvanized  iron  2 y2  inches 
wide.  On  the  front  side  of  this  strip  of  galvanized  iron  notches 
three-fourths  of  an  inch  wide  and  one  inch  long  are  cut.  The 
notches  are  three  inches  apart  from  center  to  center.  The  piece 
of  galvanized  iron  is  so  placed  in  the  bottom  of  the  box  that 
the  notches  come  midway  between  the  half  inch  holes  in  the 
bottom  of  the  groove. 

The  board  forming  the  back  of  the  box  is  three-fourths  of 
an  inch  thick  and  4%  inches  wide.  It  is  nailed  to  the  back 


Bulletin  No.  88 — Applying  Land  Plaster 


13 


edge  of  the  bottom.  The  end  boards  are  one  inch  thick,  5% 
inches  long  on  the  bottom  edge,  S1/^  inches  wide  on  the  back 
end,  and  five  inches  wide  on  the  front  end.  To  keep  the  plaster 
dry  the  box  is  covered  with  a light  lid  l1/^  inches  wide. 


Fig.  III.  A cross  section  of  the  box  of  Koon’s  land  plaster 
distributor.  The  box  is  tilted  forward  so  that  the  plaster  will 
slide  to  the  lower  front  corner.  Because  of  this  position  the 
back  of  the  box  is  not  as  high  as  the  front. 

The  bow  is  three-fourths  of  an  inch  thick  and  15  feet  long. 
The  heads  of  the  bow  are  one  and  seven-eighths  inches  wide 
and  four  inches  long.  The  body  of  the  bow  between  the  heads 
is  three-fourths  of  an  inch  square,  and  fourteen  feet  and  four 
inches  long.  A five-eighths  inch  rope  is  put  through  the  groove 
in  the  box  and  stretched  across  the  heads  of  the  bow  which 
lies  in  place  on  the  rabbeted  lip  of  the  bottom.  The  rope  is  per- 
manently fastened  to  one  end  of  the  bow.  The  rope  will  stretch 
and  it  is  necessary  to  fasten  it  to  the  other  end  so  that  it  may 
be  tightened.  It  may  be  passed  round  the  head  of  the  bow  and 
tacked  temporarily.  A better  way  is  to  securely  fasten  a piece 
of  iron  with  a five-eighths  inch  hole  in  one  end  of  it  across  the 
end  of  the  bow.  The  end  of  the  iron  with  the  hole  in  it  pro- 
jects beyond  the  edge  of  the  bow  enough  to  permit  the  rope  to 


14 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Statio?i 


pass  through  the  hole.  The  rope  is  then  tightened  and  held 
in  place  by  driving  a hardwood  wedge  into  the  hole  beside 
the  rope. 

Fig.  II  shows  the  box  attached  to  the  cart.  Scantling  are 
bolted  to  the  underside  of  the  shafts.  They  rest  on  the  axle  and 
project  far  enough  behind  the  cart  to  furnish  support  for  the 
box.  Wedges  are  placed  under  the  back  of  the  box  to  tilt  it 
forward  enough  to  cause  the  plaster  to  slide  to  the  front  of  the 
box.  A twelve  inch  board  is  bolted  across  the  scantling  between 
the  box  and  the  wheels  of  the  cart.  This  is  to  support  the  lever 
that  moves  the  bow  back  and  forth.  The  front  edge  of  the 
board  is  raised  by  means  of  wedges  to  give  the  lever  its  proper 
position.  (See  Fig.  II.) 

The  bow  is  moved  back  and  forth  by  means  of  a lever  that 
gets  its  impetus  from  one  of  the  wheels.  The  lever  consists  of 
two  pieces,  one  being  about  four  inches  shorter  than  the  other. 
The  two  pieces  of  the  lever  are  fastened  together  by  means  of  a 
thin  flat  piece  of  iron.  The  right  hand  margin  of  the  iron  plate 
is  securely  fastened  with  screws  to  the  long  piece  of  the  lever 
where  the  latter  passes  over  the  supporting  board.  Half  inch 
loops  three-fourths  of  an  inch  apart  pass  through  the  iron 
plate,  the  long  piece  of  the  lever,  and  the  supporting  board. 
The  lever  is  held  in  position  on  the  twelve  inch  board  upon 
which  it  rests  by  means  of  the  pivotal  pin,  and  three  clamps  or 
guide  plates,  two  on  the  left  side  and  one  on  the  right  side. 
These  guide  plates  are  shown  in  Figures  IV  and  V.  When  in 
position  they  are  fastened  with  screws  to  the  twelve  inch  sup 
porting  board.  The  guide  plate  on  the  right  is  about  eleven 
inches  long.  It  has  half  inch  holes  three-fourths  of  an  inch 
apart  in  its  left  margin  through  which  the  pivotal  pin  passes. 
The  length  of  the  stroke  of  the  lever  is  controlled  by  changing 
the  position  of  the  pivotal  pin  in  these  holes.  The  lower  left 
hand  corner  of  the  plate  is  bolted  to  the  lower  end  of  the  short 
piece  of  the  lever.  In  the  upper  left  hand  corner  of  the  plate 
of  iron  is  a slot  an  inch  long.  This  corner  of  the  plate  of  iron 


[ Bulletin  No.  88 — Applying  Land  Plaster 


15 


is  fastened  to  the  short  piece  of  the  lever  by  means  of  a thumb 
screw  that  passes  through  the  slot.  The  upper  end  of  the  two 
pieces  of  the  lever  each  has  a Y-shaped  iron  guide  attached  to 
it  with  screws.  Their  position  and  shape  are  shown  in  Figures 

IV  and  Y. 


Fig.  IY.  The  lever  complete  as  it  rests  upon  the  board 
that  supports  it.  Three  guide  plates  and  pivotal  pin  hold  the 
lever  in  place.  Two  of  these  plates  are  on  the  left  and  one  on 
the  right.  The  one  on  the  right  has  holes  in  its  left  margin 
through  which  the  pivotal  pin  passes.  On  the  upper  ends  of 
the  two  pieces  of  the  lever  are  Y-shaped  guide  plates.  When 
the  spokes  strike  these  plates  the  lever  moves  back  and  forth 
On  the  lower  end  of  the  lever  is  an  iron  that  catches  into  the 
staple  on  the  bow. 


i6 


Washington  Agricultural  Expo iment  Station 


or  guide  plates  lie  on  either  side  of  the  lever.  The  staple  or 
socket  into  which  the  iron  on  the  lower  end  of  the  lever 
catches  is  shown  in  the  upper  left  hand  corner  of  the  figure. 
It  is  fastened  to  the  bow  with  screws. 

By  means  of  the  thumb  screw  just  described  the  guide 
plates  are  set  just  far  enough  apart  to  allow  the  spokes  of  the 
wheels  to  pass  between  them.  Plates  of  iron  are  fastened  on 
the  spokes  where  the  guide  plates  rub  to  prevent  the  spokes 
from  being  cut  off.  The  piece  of  iron  that  is  bolted  to  the  lower 
end  of  the  lever  projects  far  enough  to  catch  into  a socket  or 
staple  fastened  to  the  bow.  As  the  spokes  of  the  wheel  strike 
the  guide  plates  the  lever  is  moved  back  and  forth.  The  lever 
in  turn  moves  the  blow.  The  longer  the  stroke  the  greater  the 
amount  of  plaster  sown  and  vice  versa.  After  the  rope  on  the 
bow  has  been  used  for  some  time  it  gets  full  of  plaster  and  the 
feed  is  diminished  slightly.  A rope  will  sow  about  100  acres. 
It  should  then  be  cleaned  or  replaced  with  a new  one. 

From  the  figures  of  this  device  for  distributing  land  plaster 
it  will  be  seen  that  it  can  be  attached  to  a buggy,  or  the  hind 


Bulletin  No.  88 — Applying  Land  Plaster 


*7 


wheels  of  the  running  gear  of  a wagon.  It  can  also  be  mounted 
upon  a pair  of  wheels  by  letting  the  scantling  upon  which  the 
box  rests  extend  forward  far  enough  to  serve  as  shafts.  The 
wheelbarrow  grass  seeder  is  one  of  the  best  devices  for  sowing 
clover  seed.  A farmer  who  needs  a plaster  distributor  will 
doubtless  need  a grass  seeder  also.  We  would  advise  those 
contemplating  the  construction  of  this  implement  first  to  get 
the  wheelbarrow  grass  seeder.  With  it  to  look  at  and  the 
descriptions  given  herewith  its  construction  should  be  a simple 
matter. 

In  order  that  this  implement  may  do  perfect  work  the  land 
plaster  should  be  dry  and  thoroughly  pulverized.  Difficulty 
is  sometimes  experienced  in  distributing  plaster  that  is  damy 
and  full  of  lumps  and  small  pieces  of  uncrushed  rock.  Putting 
the  plaster  through  a sieve  to  remove  the  lumps  and  pieces  of 
uncrushed,  rock  materially  aids  in  its  distribution. 

OLSON’S  LAND  PLASTER  DISTRIBUTOR. 

Some  five  years  ago  Mr.  Charles  Olson,  of  Washington 
County,  Oregon,  undertook  the  task  of  making  a satisfactory 
implement  for  distributing  land  plaster.  During  this  time  a 
local  smith  has  constructed  several  of  these  implements  and 
the  original  has  been  improved  in  several  particulars. 


Fig.  VI.  An  implement  for  distributing  land  plaster.  De- 
vised by  Charles  Olson,  of  Washington  County,  Oregon. 


i8 


Washington  Agricultural  Expeiiment  Station 


Figure  VI  illustrates  a very  efficient  implement.  It  con- 
sists of  a long  box  or  hopper  mounted  on  an  old  pair  of  mower 
wheels.  A large  square  shaft  revolves  in  the  bottom  of  the 
box  to  agitate  the  plaster.  The  implement  has  a tongue  and  is 
drawn  by  two  horses.  The  box  is  shaped  very  much  like  the 
box  of  an  ordinary  grain  drill.  It  is  eleven  feet  long  but  can 
be  made  any  length  desired.  The  bottom  of  the  box  is  1% 
inches  thick,  5%  inches  wide,  and  11  feet  10  inches  long,  thus 
projecting  far  enough  beyond  the  ends  of  the  box  to  furnish 
support  for  the  bearings.  The  front  and  back  pieces  of  the 
box  are  1%  inches  thick,  and  11  inches  wide.  The  lower  edge 
of  the  side  pieces  rest  upon  the  top  of  the  bottom  piece.  The 
ends  of  the  box  are  1%  inches  thick.  Each  end  consists  of  two 
pieces.  The  lower  piece  is  about  one  inch  wide  and  has  a half- 
circle cut  in  the  middle  of  its  upper  edge.  When  the  two  pieces 
are  put  together  they  form  a circular  hole  through  which  the 
shaft  passes.  The  end  pieces  fit  the  shaft  snugly  so  that  the 
plaster  will  not  work  out.  The  ends  fit  into  grooves  cut  in  the 
side  pieces.  They  are  held  in  place  by  small  iron  rods  that  run 
across  the  box.  To  protect  the  plaster  during  showers  the  box 
is  provided  with  a lid  thirteen  inches  wide. 


Fig.  VII.  This  figure  shows  the  holes  in  the  bottom  of  the 
box  through  which  the  plaster  passes  and  the  attachment  of 
the  tongue  and  its  braces  to  the  box.  The  lever  for  adjusting 
the  feed  is  also  shown  as  it  is  carried  in  straps  on  the  front  of 
the  box. 


B title  tin  No.  88 — Applying  Land  Plaster 


19 


Holes  for  the  plaster  to  pass  through  are  cut  in  the  bottom 
of  the  box.  (See  Figure  VII.)  The  holes  are  three-eighths  of 
an  inch  wide,  2^4  inches  long  and  three  inches  apart.  These 
holes  run  across  the  box,  that  is,  the  length  of  the  holes  is  at 
right  angles  to  the  length  of  the  box.  On  the  underside  the 
holes  are  about  an  inch  wide.  A piece  of  galvanized  iron  with 
holes  corresponding  to  those  just  described  is  placed  in  the  bot- 
tom of  the  box  in  such  a way  as  to  form  a curved  bottom.  (See 
Figure  VIII,  which  shows  a cross  section  of  the  box.)  This  piece 
of  galvanized  iron  is  eight  inches  wide  and  as  long  as  the  box. 
Its  edges  are  nailed  to  the  sides.  Another  piece  of  galvanized 
iron  ten  inches  wide  with  corresponding  feed  holes  fits  snugly 
uver  the  one  fastened  stationary  in  the  bottom  of  the  box.  This 
upper  piece  of  iron  is  movable  lengthwise  of  the  box.  Its  edges 
pass  up  the  sides  of  the  box  and  are  covered  by  cleats.  The 
cleats  are  narrow  strips  of  galvanized  iron  1%  inches  wide, 
and  are  nailed  to  the  side  of  the  box.  They  are  bent  in  the 
middle  to  give  room  for  the  edges  of  the  sheet  of  galvanized 
iron  they  cover.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  upper  piece  of  gal- 
vanized iron  is  only  held  in  place  by  the  cleats  and  can  be 
moved  lengthwise  in  either  direction  to  open  or  close  the  feed 
holes. 


Fig.  VIII.  Cross  section  of  the  box  of  Olson’s  Land 
Plaster  Distributor.  1.  Botton.  2.  Sides.  3.  Top  or  lid.  4. 
Square  shaft  that  revolves  in  the  bottom  of  the  box.  5.  Sta- 
tionary sheet  Of  galvanized  iron.  6.  Movable  sheet  of  galvan- 
ized iron.  7.  Cleats  that  hold  the  upper  sheet  of  galvanized 
iron  in  place. 


20 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


The  wheels  of  the  implement  are  old  mower  wheels.  A 
large  iron  shaft  runs  through  the  bottom  of  the  box  and  con- 
nects the  two  wheels.  On  the  'outside  of  the  box  this  shaft  is 
cylindrical,  but  on  the  inside  it  is  1*4  inches  square.  The  turn- 
ing of  this  square  rod  in  the  bottom  of  the  box  constantly  works 
the  plaster  out  through  the  feed  holes  and  keeps  it  from  pack- 
ing in  the  bottom  of  the  box.  In  fact,  the  turning  of  this  square 
shaft  in  the  bottom  of  the  box  is  one  of  the  essential  features 
of  the  implement.  It  must  be  perfectly  square  and  so  located 
that  the  corners  will  just  touch  the  galvanized  iron  when  it 
turns.  Another  point  very  essential  to  observe  in  the  construc- 
tion of  this  implement  is  making  the  holes  in  the  two  pieces 
of  galvanized  iron.  They  must  exactly  correspond.  If  they 
do  not  some  of  the  feed  holes  will  be  larger  than  others  and  the 
plaster  will  be  distributed  unevenly.  After  the  holes  have 
been  cut  the  two  pieces  of  galvanized  iron  are  riveted  together, 
put  into  a vice,  and  the  margins  of  the  holes  filed  until  they 
exactly  correspond. 


Fig.  IX.  A view  of  the  inside  of  the  box  to  show  the  feed 
holes,  square  rod  that  revolves  in  the  bottom  of  the  box,  and 
the  position  of  the  lever  when  used  in  slipping  the  upper  sheet 

of  galvanized  iron  to  open  and  close  the  feed  holes. 

In  the  middle  of  the  box  just  over  the  large  shaft  that 
revolves  a bar  of  iron  one-half  of  an  inch  square  passes  across 
the  box.  The  ends  of  this  bar  are  split,  flattened  out,  and 


Bulletin  No.  88 — Applying  Land  Plastsr 


21 


riveted  to  the  top  sheet  of  galvanized  iron  just  below  the  cleats 
described  above.  The  split  ends  of  the  bar  are  seven  or  eight 
inches  long  to  give  the  union  strength.  Just  over  the  square 
half-inch  bar  of  iron  just  described,  a flat  bar  of  iron  two  inches 
wide  with  a hole  in  its  center  is  bolted  across  the  top  of  the 
box.  By  running  a lever  down  through  this  hole  and  prying 
on  the  half-inch  bar  of  iron  the  upper  sheet  of  galvanized  iron 
may  be  moved  either  way,  thus  opening  or  closing  the  feed 
holes.  The  lever  used  for  this  purpose  is  two  feet  long,  three- 
eighths  of  an  inch  thick,  and  one  inch  wide.  In  the  lower  end 
of  the  lever  is  a half  inch  notch  that  permits  the  lever  to  slip 
over  the  half-inch  bar  of  iron.  (See  Figs.  VIII  and  IX.) 

As  previously  stated,  the  bottom  piece  of  the 'box  projects 
about  five  inches  beyond  the  ends.  Upon  these  projections  the 
bearings  for  the  shaft  are  bolted.  The  shaft  is  rounded  until 
it  passes  through  the  end  of  the  box  where  it  is  welded  to  the 
square  shaft  that  revolves  in  the  bottom  of  the  box.  There  is 
also  a bearing  in  the  center  of  the  box.  The  shaft  is  made 
cylindrical  for  about  two  inches  at  its  center.  A broad  staple 
is  driven  down  over  the  shaft.  The  staple  passes  through  the 
bottom  and  an  iron  plate  that  is  fastened  to  the  tongue.  It  is 
fastened  below  with  nuts.  This  center  bearing  is  necessary  to 
take  the  shake  out  of  the  shaft  and  hold  it  in  place  so  that  it 
will  rub  the  bottom  just  right.  In  addition  to  being  bolted  to 
the  bottom  the  tongue  has  iron  braces  on  either  side.  To  keep 
the  box  from  spreading  there  are  two  iron  stirrups  that  fit  on 
the  underside  of  the  box.  The  stirrups  and  side  braces  of  the 
tongue  are  bolted  to  the  bottom  of  the  box. 

The  wheels  of  all  these  implements  that  have  been  made 
have  been  taken  from  old  mowers.  The  wheels  best  suited  for 
the  purpose  are  those  provided  with  ratchet  wheels  into  which 
palls  or  catches  drop  and  cause  the  shaft  to  revolve  when  the 
implement  is  moving  forward.  Only  one  ratchet  wheel  is  nec- 
essary if  the  implement  is  driven  around  the  field  to  be 
plastered  with  the  ratchet  wheel  on  the  outside.  Some  means 


22 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment.  Station 


should  be  provided  for  raising  the  catches  that  drop  into  the 
ratchet  wheels  so  that  the  shaft  will  not  revolve  when  going  to 
and  from  the  field.  Otherwise  it  will  be  necessary  to  close  the 
feed  holes.  If  wheels  with  ratchets  are  not  to  be  had  a hole 
may  be  drilled  through  the  shaft  and  the  hub  of  one  of  the 
wheels.  The  shaft  will  be  revolved  by  putting  a pin  through 
this  hole.  The  implement  should  then  be  driven  around  the 
field  with  this  wheel  on  the  outside,  so  that  the  plaster  will  be 
sown  when  turning  the  corners.  When  taking  the  implement 
from  one  place  to  another  the  pin  in  the  end  of  the  hub  can  be 
removed.  With  the  pin  out  the  shaft  will  not  turn,  and  little 
or  no  plaster  will  be  soAvn.  This  is  a very  efficient  implement. 
Its  construction  costs  from  $35  to  $40.  The  help  of  a smith 
is  necessary. 

This  is  a very  efficient  implement  and  so  far  as  the  writer 
knows,  only  fails  to  work  when  the  plaster  is  very  damp.  When 
the  plaster  is  in  this  condition  it  sticks  to  the  feedrod  and  does 
not  go  through  evenly.  Under  these  conditions  it  is  necessary 
to  spread  the  plaster  in  the  sun  to  dry. 


With  this  machine  it  is  not  necessary  to  screen  lumpy 
plaster.  The  lumps  are  nulverized  bv  the  feedrod. 


Bulletin  No.  88 — Applying  Land  Plaster 


23 


ENDGATE  SEEDERS. 

A number  of  farmers  are  using  endgate  seeders  for  sowing 
land  plaster.  This  seeder  is  easily  attached  to  a wagon,  the 
board  to  which  it  is  bolted  being  the  same  width  and  length  as 
the  endgate  of  the  wagon  box.  If  the  plaster  is  dry  and  the 
air  still  they  do  fairly  good  work.  If  the  plaster  is  damp  it 
gives  some  trouble  by  packing  in  the  feed  hopper.  The  machine 
being  so  high  above  the  ground  it  is  difficult  to  do  a good  job 
when  the  wind  is  strong.  It  is  best  to  drive  at  right  angles  to 
the  direction  in  which  the  wind  is  blowing.  The  worker  can 
then  keep  himself  reasonably  free  from  the  dust. 

Most  of  the  endgate  seeders  used  for  sowing  land  plaster 
have  but  one  fan.  Mr.  C.  R.  Widmer,  of  Benton  County,  Ore- 
gon, uses  a double  fan  machine  with  a clover  seeder  attach- 
ment. The  seeder  is  attached  to  a cart  made  from  the  hind 
wheels  of  an  old  wagon.  The  coupling  is  replaced  by  a pole 
that  serves  as  a tongue.  The  side  pieces  of  the  box  are  two 
inches  thick,  twelve  inches  wide,  and  six  feet  long.  The  box 
projects  behind  the  axle  2%  feet.  It  is  swung  under  the  axle 
by  means  of  iron  stirrups.  The  front  end  of  the  side  pieces  of 
the  box  are  bolted  to  a two  inch  by  six  inch  scantling  that 
crosses  the  hounds.  A bottom  is  placed  in  that  portion  of  the 
box  behind  the  axle.  On  the  front  part  of  the  cart  is  a seat 
for  the  driver.  The  board  to  which  the  seeder  is  attached  forms 
the  endgate  of  the  box.  When  the  seeder  is  mounted  on  a cart 
in  this  way  the  fans  that  throw  the  plaster  are  just  eighteen 
inches  above  the  ground,  and  the  effect  of  the  wind  on  the 
plaster  is  much  less  than  when  the  machine  is  attached  to  a 
wagon  box.  This  double-fan  seeder  has  a force  feed  and  little 
trouble  is  experienced  with  clogging  unless  the  plaster  is  damp. 
When  it  clogs  a light  tap  on  the  hopper  usually  starts  the  feed 
again.  The  machine  has  two  hoppers,  one  for  grain  and  the 
other  for  clover  seed.  The  plaster  is  sown  from  the  clover  seed 
hopper.  About  thirty-five  pounds  of  plaster  can  be  placed  in 
the  hopper  at  a time.  The  machine  mounted  on  a cart  as 


24 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


described  sows  a strip  ten  feet  wide.  A marker  at  the  side  of 
the  cart  indicates  the  next  place  to  drive.  All  of  these  imple- 
ments do  better  work  if  the  plaster  is  put  through  a sieve  to 
take  out  the  small  pieces  of  uncrushed  rock. 

ADVANTAGE  IN  DISTRIBUTING  THE  PLASTER 

EVENLY. 

There  are  several  reasons  why  every  farmer  in  Western 
Oregon  and  Western  Washington  who  uses  land  plaster  should 
provide  himself  with  a satisfactory  way  of  distributing  it. 

1.  It  is  very  difficult  to  distribute  land  plaster  evenly  by 
hand.  Parts  of  the  field  will  receive  too  much  plaster  and  parts 
will  not  receive  enough.  Where  there  is  too  much  plaster  the 
growth  may  be  so  rank  that  the  clover  falls  before  it  can  be 
harvested.  Where  there  is  not  enough  plaster  the  growth  is 
seldom  what  it  should  be.  It  is  a conservative  estimate  to  say 
that  clover  will  yield  one-half  ton  more  hay  per  acre  when  the 
plaster  is  evenly  applied  than  when  the  distribution  is  uneven. 

2.  Most  men  apply  more  plaster  than  is  necessary  when 
sowing  it  by  hand.  An  implement  that  distributes  it  evenly 
will  usually  save  from  twenty  to  fifty  pounds  per  acre. 

3.  Where  the  plaster  is  evenly  distributed  the  crop  comes 
on  vigorously  and  quite  evenly  all  over  the  field,  and  holds  the 
weeds  in  check.  Sorrel,  grasses,  and  other  weeds  usually  give 
considerable  trouble  in  clover  and  alfalfa  where  no  plaster  is 
used,  or  where  the  distribution  is  uneven. 

4.  Sowing  plaster  by  hand  is  an  unpleasant  task.  Men 
are  scarce  who  can  apply  it  evenly  and  few  hired  men  can  be 
trusted  to  do  it.  For  these  reasons  the  farmer  usually  has  to 
do  it  himself.  A good  implement  for  distributing  the  plaster 
makes  it  possible  for  any  one  to  do  the  work  who  can  drive  a 
team. 


State  College  of  Washington 

Agricultural  Experiment  Station 

PULLMAN,  WASHINGTON 

DEPARTMENT  OF  CHEMISTRY 


THE  HYBRID  WHEATS 

By  W.  J.  Spillman 


BULLETIN  No.  89 
1909 


All  Bulletins  of  this  Station  sent  free  to  citizens  of  the  State  on 
application  to  the  Director. 


THE  HERALD  PRESS,  PULLMAN,  WASH. 


BOARD  OF  CONTROL 


Tee  A.  Johnson,  President , Sunnyside 
F.  J.  Barnard,  Treasurer , Seattle 

E.  A.  Bryan,  Secretary  tx  officio , Pullman 

President  of  the  College 

J.  J.  Browne,  Spokane 

Dr.  J.  S.  Anderson,  Dayton 

Peter  McGregor,  Colfax 


STATION  STAFF. 


R.  W.  Thatcher,  M.  A., 
Elton  Fulmer,  M.  A., 

S.  B.  Nelson,  D.  V.  M., 

O.  E.  Waller,  Ph.  M.,  - 
R.  K.  Beattie,  A.  M., 
Walter  S.  Thornber,  M.  S.  - 
A.  L.  Melander,  M.S.  - 
George  Severance,  B.  S., 

C.  W.  Lawrence,  B.  S.  - 
W.  H.  Lawrence,  M.  S., 

W.  T.  McDonald,  M.  S.  A.  - 
C.  C.  Tiiom,  M.  S., 

W.  E.  Ralston,  D.  V.  M.,  - 

W.  T.  Shaw,  B.  S., 

H.  B.  Humphrey,  Ph.  D , 
George  A.  Olson,  M.  S. 

Alex  Carlyle, 


- Director  and  Chemist 

State  Chemist 
Veterinarian 
Irrigation  Engineer 
Botanist 
Horticulturist 
Entomologist 
Agronomist 
Cerealist 
- Plant  Pathologist 

- Animal  Husbandman 

Soil  Physicist 

- Assistant  Veterinarian 

Assistant  Zoologist 
Assistant  Botanist 
Assistant  Chemist 
Assistant  Cerealist 


Introductory  Note. 


The  following  bulletin  was  prepared  at  my  request  by  W. 
J.  Spillman,  who  wras  formerly  Agriculturist  of  this  Station  but 
is  now  in  charge  of  the  Farm  Management  Investigations  of  the 
Bureau  of  Plant  Industry  of  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture.  It  contains  a history  of  the  inception,  progress, 
and  results  up  to  the  present  time  of  the  investigation  at  this 
Station  of  the  possibility  of  the  production  of  new  varieties 
of  wheat  having  certain  desirable  characteristics  by  means  of 
crossing  or  hybridizing  existing  varieties.  During  the  early 
progress  of  the  investigation  certain  laws  of  breeding  which  are 
of  highest  importance  to  scientific  and  practical  plant  breeders 
have  been  discovered,  others  which  had  been  known  but  had 
received  little  practical  consideration  have  been  confirmed 
and  strikingly  illustrated  in  practical  field  work.  The  original 
object  of  investigation,  namely,  the  production  of  a hardy  win- 
ter wheat  with  stiff  straw  and  -close  chaff,  has  been  successfully 
attained,  and  several  of  the  new  hybrid  wheats  are  now  being 
grown  with  remarkable  success  over  large  areas  in  this  and 
adjoining  states.  A brief  popular  description  of  the  more  im- 
portant characteristics  of  these  has  been  published  in  Popular 
Bulletin  No.  9,  of  this  Station. 

The  original  plan  of  the  work  was  conceived  by  Prof.  Spill- 
man and  the  earlier  crosses  and  selections  were  made  by  him 
personally  or  under  his  supervision.  Following  his  departure 
from  this  institution  the  work  of  selection,  propagation,  and 
field  trials  of  the  original  hybrids,  together  with  the  production 
of  many  new  crosses,  has  been  carried  on  by  several  new  mem- 
bers of  the  Agricultural  Department  of  the  Station.  Professor 


State  College  Experiment  Station 


Spillman’s  interest  in  the  work  and  its  outcome  has  continued 
unabated  and  he  is,  therefore,  particularly  well  qualified  to  pre- 
sent as  he  has  done  in  this  bulletin  a concise  report  of  the  work 
thus  far  completed. 

The  investigations  in’this  direction  are  by  no  means  com- 
pleted. New  crosses  and  new  combinations  of  desirable  char- 
acters are  continually  being  sought.  Some  of  the  hybrids  from 
the  first  crossings  are  being  reinforced  in  certain  desirable  char- 
acters by  re-hybridizing  upon  one  or  the  other  parent  variety. 
Many  very  promising  new  hybrids  are  now  ready  for  field  trial 
or  are  fixed.  Bulletins  giving  the  results  of  this  further  work 
will  be  issued  from  time  to  time.  The  strikingly  successful 
outcome  of  some  of  the  original  crosses  made  by  Professor 
Spillman  makes  this  history  of  the  work  on  these  up  to  the  pre- 
sent time  written  by  him  peculiarly  appropriate. 

R.  W.  THATCHER,  Director. 


The  Hybrid  Wheats. 


BY  W.  J.  SPILLMAN. 


When  the  writer  assumed  the  responsibilities  of  Professor 
of  Agriculture  in  the  Washington  State  College  and  Agricultur- 
ist to  the  Washington  Experiment  Station,  July  1,  1894,  the 
price  of  wheat  at  Pullman  was  about  18  cents  per  bushel.  The 
year  before  most  of  the  wheat  growers  of  Eastern  Washington 
had  lost  their  crop  by  untimely  rains.  In  1895  the  price  of 
wheat  rose  to  about  25  cents  a bushel.  There  was  thus  a period 
of  three  years  when  the  farmer  either  lost  his  crop  of  wheat  or 
could  not  sell  it  for  what  it  had  cost  him.  The  one  great  pro- 
blem of  agriculture  in  Eastern  Washington  therefore  seemed  to 
be  diversification.  While  it  was  recognized  that  Eastern  Wash- 
ington was  one  of  the  great  wheat  regions  of  the  world,  the 
lesson  had  been  made  very  plain  that  any  system  of  agricul- 
ture is  very  unsafe  when  it  is  based  on  a single  crop.  The 
first  great  problem  the  solution  of  which  was  attempted  was 
that  of  finding  suitable  grasses  as  a basis  for  live  stock  farming. 
When  the  problem  of  hay  and  pasture  crops  had  been  partially 
solved,  attention  was  turned  to  problems  relating  directly  to 
wheat  growing,  as  it  was  evident  that  wheat  would  continue 
to  be  the  principal  money  crop  of  the  average  farmer.  A cir- 
cular letter  was  sent  to  a large  number  of  farmers  in  the  wheat 
growing  sections  of  the  state  asking  for  various  kinds  of  in- 
formation. One  of  these  questions  was:  “What  variety  of 

wheat  do  you  grow,  and  why  do  you  grow  it  ?”  When  the 
answers  to  these  questions  were  tabulated  the  following  in- 
teresting fact  was  developed.  In  those  portions  of  Eastern 


6 


State  College  Experiment  Station 


"Washington  where  the  rainfall  is  greater  than  20  inches  a large 
majority  of  the  farmers  reported  that  they  grew  Little  Club, 
and  stated  as  their  reason  that  it  would  stand  up  better  than 
Red  Chaff  and  hold  its  grain  better.  Several  other  varieties  of 
wheat  were  mentioned  from  this  belt,  but  no  one  variety  from 
many  farmers. 

In  those  sections  where  rainfall  was  about  18  inches,  a large 
majority  of  the  farmers  reported  that  they  grew  Red  Chaff, 
stating  that  it  stood  up  better  than  Blue  Stem  and  yielded  bet- 
ter than  the  Little  Club.  Few  other  varieties  of  wheat  were 
mentioned  in  the  Red  Chaff  region. 

Where  the  rainfall  was  less  than  17  inches  a large  majority 
of  those  who  answered  the  letter  stated  that  they  grew  Blue 
Stem,  as  it  was  the  only  variety  of  wheat  they  had  found  which 
grew  tall  enough  in  their  dry  section.  They  further  stated  that 
they  preferred  Blue  Stem  because  it  sold  at  a higher  price  than 
Red  Chaff. 

It  is  to  be  noted  that  very  few  correspondents  who  lived 
in  the  Little  Club  region  mentioned  Blue  Stem  in  any  way. 
Likewise,  those  who  lived  in  the  Blue  Stem  region  seldom  men- 
tioned Little  Club.  But  most  invariably  those  who  grew  Red 
Chaff  mentioned  both  Little  Club  and  Blue  Stem. 

The  last  question  in  the  circular  letter  referred  to  above 
was:  “What  can  the  State  Experiment  Station  do  for  the 

wheat  growers  of  the  state?”  Singularly  enough,  every  one  who 
answered  the  letter  gave  the  same  answer  to  this  question,  vary- 
ing the  ans'wer  only  as  it  related  to  the  variety  which  the  farm- 
er grew.  For  instance,  from  the  Little  Club  belt  the  answer 
was : “Give  us  a winter  wheat  as  well  adapted  to  this  section  as 
Little  Club.”  The  answers  from  the  other  two  sections  were 
the  same  except  that  they  mentioned  Red  Chaff  and  Blue  Stem 
respectively. 

It  seems  that  since  the  earliest  settlement  of  Eastern  Wash- 
ington farmers  have  been  experimenting  with  varieties  of 
wheat,  and  the  three  varieties  above  mentioned  were  the  only 
ones  which  at  that  time  had  been  found  to  be  generally  adapted 
to  the  regions  in  question.  This  statement  applies  particularly 


Bulletin  No.  89 — The  Hybrid  Wheats 


7 


to  that  portion  of  the  wheat  region  which  lies  east  of  the  dry~ 
region  in  the  central  part  of  the  state.  It  happens  that  the 
three  varieties,  Little  Club,  Red  Chaff,  and  Blue  Stem,  are  all 
spring  wheats  but  they  were  generally  sown  in  the  fall  because 
of  the  larger  yield  obtained  from  fall  sowing.  Unfortunately, 
however,  when  a hard  winter  occurred  these  spring  varieties 
were  badly  killed  out  and  frequently  had  to  be  resown  in  the 
spring.  There  was,  therefore,  an  urgent  demand  for  a wheat 
that  was  hardy  enough  to  stand  the  winter. 

The  answers  to  the  circular  letter  made  it  clear  that  the  one 
large  problem  of  the  wheat  grower  was  to  find  a satisfactory 
winter  wheat.  Fortunately,  the  State  Experiment  Station  had 
already  made  a collection  of  winter  wheats  from  various 
sources,  and  for  five  years  these  wheats  were  carefully  tested 
with  a view  to  finding  which  of  them  were  best  suited  to  local 
conditions.  The  fact  developed,  in  these  tests,  that  all  the 
winter  wheats  which  had  been  obtained  had  two  serious  faults. 
In  the  first  place,  the  straw  was  weak  and  a wind  storm  oc- 
curring after  the  wheats  had  reached  the  heading  stage  would 
blow  them  down.  Furthermore,  when  ripe  the  chaff  stood  par- 
tially open  so  that  the  grain  easily  shattered  out.  This  was 
more  or  less  the  case  with  every  variety  of  winter  wheat  tested. 
Yet,  a good  many  of  the  varieties  produced  enormous  yields 
when  the  season  was  favorable  and  when  they  were  harvested 
promptly  after  ripening. 

Since  it  appeared  to  be  impossible  to  find  suitable  varieties  of 
winter  wheat,  in  the  season  of  1899  it  was  decided  to  attempt 
to  produce  new  varieties  by  crossing  the  best  of  the  winter 
wheats  with  the  best  springs  wheats  that  could  be  grown  at 
Pullman.  The  first  step  was  to  examine  all  the  available  litera- 
ture in  order  to  ascertain  what  would  be  the  best  method  of 
procedure  and  what  chance  of  success  there  might  be  from  this 
type  of  work.  About  the  only  information  of  value  that  could 
be  had  from  the  books  at  that  time  was  this:  if  we  cross  two 
varieties  of  wheat  and  get,  say,  a hundred  grains  of  hybrid 
wheat,  all  of  the  same  breeding,  the  next  year  these  hundred 
grains  will  make  plants  fully  as  similar  to  each  other  as  an  or- 


8 


State  College  Experiment  Station 


dinary  variety  of  wheat.  Furthermore,  the  books  stated  that 
when  the  seed  from  these  hybrids  was  saved  and  planted  the 
next  year  there  would  be  enormous  variability  and  that  a very 
large  number  of  kinds  of  wheat  would  appear  in  the  second 
generation  of  the  hybrid.  This  seemed  encouraging,  and  it  was 
hoped  that  in  the  second  generation  amongst  the  numerous 
types  to  be  expected  we  might  find  some  good  winter  wheat 
adapted  to  the  section.  There  was  also  an  idea  in  the  writer’s 
mind  that  it  might  be  possible  to  combine  the  good  characters 
of  the  varieties  which  were  crossed. 

There  was  one  other  doctrine  found  in  the  books  then  avail- 
able to  the  effect  that  when  a given  type  of  wheat  is  found 
in  the  progeny  of  a hybrid,  if  that  type  were  selected  year  after 
year  the  amount  of  it  in  the  mixture  would  gradually  increase, 
and  that  in  from  six  to  eight  years  any  of  the  types  could  be 
made  practically  fixed  like  an  ordinary  variety  of  wheat.  We 
now  know  that  this  is  true  of  certain  types  which  occur  in  the 
second  generation  of  a hybrid  and  untrue  of  other  types.  This 
will  be  made  clear  later. 

For  producing  the  hybrids  either  Little  Club  or  Red  Chaff 
was  used  in  every  cross  made.  Eleven  of  the  best  yielding  of 
the  winter  varieties  on  hand  were  chosen  for  crossing  with 
Little  Club  or  Red  Chaff.  In  three  instances  the  crossing  was 
done  both  ways — that  is,  pollen  from  a spring  variety  was  put 
on  the  stigmas  of  a winter  variety  so  that  the  hybrid  seed  grew 
on  the  winter  variety,  and,  vice  versa,  pollen  was  taken  from  the 
winter  variety  and  transferred  to  the  spring  variety  so  that  hy- 
brid seed  grew  on  the  spring  variety.  In  each  of  these  recipro- 
cal crosses  the  results  were  exactly  the  same  whichever  parent 
grew  the  seed. 


Bulletin  No.  89 — The  Hybrid  Wheats 


9 


The  work  of  crossing  two  varieties  of  wheat  is  not  an  easy 
task.  The  principles  involved  are  shown  in  Figure  1.  In  the 


Showing  principles  involved  in  hybridizing  wheats.  On  the  left — 
parts  of  a single  floret.  On  the  right — showing  action  of  pollen. 

left  hand  part  of  the  figure  is  shown  a single  flower  of  the 
wheat  plant.  The  part  marked  “ovary”  is  that  which  develops 
into  the  grain  after  it  has  been  fertilized  by  the  pollen.  The  an- 
thers, three  of  which  are  seen  in  the  upper  part  of  the  flower 
contain  the  pollen.  Down  in  the  ovary  is  a certain  vegetable 
cell  which  contains  only  half  of  a nucleus  and  which  there- 
fore cannot  grow  in  that  condition.  The  pollen  grains  like- 
wise contain  only  half  of  a nucleus.  What  happens  when  the 
pollen  grains  fall  on  the  stigma  is  shown  in  the  right  hand 
portion  of  Figure  1,  which  shows  a different  form  of  stigma 
but  in  which  identically  the  same  thing  occurs  as  in  wheat.  The 
pollen  grain  (p),  when  it  lights  on  the  stigma,  sends  out  a lit- 
tle root-like  thread  which  grows  down  through  the  tissues  of 
the  style  (s),  just  like  a little  rootlet  growing  down  into  the 
soil.  At  the  tip  of  this  pollen  tube  is  found  a half  nucleus, 
marked  “r”  in  the  figure.  When  the  pollen  tube  reaches  the 


10 


State  College  Experiment  Station 


ovule  (o),  the  half  nucleus  from  the  pollen  tube  unites  with 
the  half  nucleus  of  the  ovule,  and  then  growth  begins  and  the 
seed  is  formed. 

Now  in  the  wheat  plant,  ordinarily  the  pollen  which  fer- 
tilizes the  ovule  is  produced  in  the  same  flower  with  it.  In  or- 
der to  hybridize  two  varieties  of  wheat,  therefore,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  cut  out  the  anthers  of  the  flower  in  order  to  keep  the 
pollen  from  fertilizing  the  ovule  in  the  same  flower.  This  must 
be  done  before  the  flowers  are  ready  to  open.  The  matter  is 
considerably  simplified  by  cutting  off  every  alternate  mesh  of 
the  head  and  cutting  out  all  the  flowers  in  each  mesh  except 
two.  (Figure  2.)  Then  all  the  anthers  are  extracted  from  the 


Figure  2 

Preparing  a Wheat  Head  for  Hybridization. 

flowers  left  on  the  head,  and  the  head  is  covered  with  a paper 
sack  to  keep  foreign  pollen  from  getting  in  and  fertilizing  the 
ovules.  At  the  proper  time  pollen  is  secured  from  the  other 
variety  to  be  used  in  the  cross,  the  paper  sack  is  removed  tern- 


Bulletin  No.  89 — The  Hybrid  Wheats 


11 


porarily,  and  the  pollen  dusted  on  the  stigmas.  Then  the  paper 
sack  is  put  on  again  to  prevent  the  chance  of  other  pollen  get- 
ting in  before  the  pollen  which  has  been  put  on  the  stigma  has 
had  time  to  act.  If  the  work  has  been  carefully  done  the  seed 
produced  as  a result  of  this  operation  will  be  hybrid  between 
the  two  varieties. 

This  work  was  planned  by  the  writer  and  the  preparation 
of  the  heads  for  hybridizing  was  done  by  the  writer  and  Mr.  H. 
F.  Blanchard,  who  was  at  that  time  a student  in  the  college. 
But  before  time  came  for  transferring  the  pollen  over-work  had 
made  it  necessary. for  the  writer  to  discontinue  all  work  for  a 
short  period,  and  the  transferring  of  the  pollen  was  done  by 
Professor  E.  E.  Elliott,  at  that  time  connected  with  the  Ex- 
periment station. 

About  a thousand  flowers  were  treated,  but  only  303  of  them 
produced  grains.  The  manipulation  of  the  young  flowers  had 
caused  many  of  them  to  fail  to  set  seed.  Perhaps,  in  some 
cases,  the  pollen  was  not  put  on  at  exactly  the  right  time. 
Nearly  half  of  the  seed  proved  not  to  be  hybrid.  Evidently, 
the  anthers  were  removed  too  late  and  pollen  had  already  fal- 
len on  the  stigmas,  or  did  so  while  the  work  was  in  progress. 
All  the  seeds  obtained  were  planted,  each  seed  being  put  six 
inches  from  its  neighbors  with  a stake  beside  it  containing  a 
number  which  enabled  us  to  refer  to  the  records  showing  the 
breeding  of  each  of  these  grains.  During  the  winter  a hard  rain 
storm  made  a gully  through  the  little  plat  where  these  hybrids 
were  planted  and  washed  out  about  one-fourth  of  them.  As 
already  stated,  a considerable  number  proved  not  to  be  hybrids 
but  149  hybrid  plants  matured  seeds.  These  were  of  eleven 


different  types,  as  follows : 

No.  of 

Pollen  Parent 

Seed  Parent 

Hybrids  Secured. 

Jones’  Winter  Fife 

Little  Club 

22 

White  Track 

Little  Club 

4 

Turkey 

Little  Club 

7 

Emporium 

Little  Club 

2 

Little  Club 

Emporium 

6 

12 


State  College  Experiment  Station 


No.  of 


Pollen  Parent 

Seed  Parent 

Hybrids  Secured 

Farquahar 

Little  Club 

7 

Little  Club 

Farquahar 

27 

V alley 

Little  Club 

3 

Little  Club 

Valley 

11 

White  Track 

Red  Chaff 

2 

McPherson 

Red  Chaff 

6 

Jones’  Winter  Fife 

Red  Chaff 

7 

Farquhar 

Red  Chaff 

1 

Lehigh 

Red  Chaff 

3 

The  total  number  of  hybrids  given  here  is  only  108.  This 
represents  the  number  that  were  preserved  beyond  the  second 
generation.  The  remaining  41  were  sorted  into  types  in  the  sec- 
ond generation  by  inexperienced  persons,  whose  work  had  to 
be  discarded. 

All  the  hybrid  plant  made  remarkably  fine  heads  of  wheat, 
and  it  was  found  that  what  the  books  had  said  about  the  simi- 
larity of  hybrids  of  similar  breeding  was  true.  For  instance, 
the  22  hybrids  produced  between  Jones’  Winter  Fife  and  Little 
Club  were  much  alike  as  a similar  number  of  plants  in  any 
ordinary  variety  of  wheat.  In  every  case  the  hybrid  had  more 
or  less  of  the  Club  character,  but  the  heads  were  generally  long- 
er and  had  more  grain  in  them  than  Little  Club.  On  the  other 
hand,  all  of  these  22  hybrids  had  the  velvet  chaff  character  of 
Jones’  Winter  Fife.  It  was  expected  that  the  next  year  each  of 
these  hybrids  would  break  up  into  a large  number  of  types  and 
that  one  of  the  types  would  be  just  like  the  hybrid,  and  this 
actually  occurred.  We  further  expected  that  by  selecting  each 
year  the  type  like  the  original  hybrid  and  planting  its  seed 
separately  in  a few  years  the  type  could  be  fixed.  As  will  be 
seen  later,  it  is  impossible  to  fix  the  type  of  the  original  hy- 
brid. 

At  harvest  time  each  of  the  hybrid  plants  was  harvested 
separately.  One  head  from  each  plant  was  removed  and  saved 
for  future  reference;  the  other  heads  were  threshed  out  by 


Bulletin  No.  89 — The  Hybrid  Wheats 


13 


hand,  and  the  one  head  saved  and  all  the  grain  threshed  from 
a single  plant  were  put  together  in  an  envelope  and  properly 
labeled. 

In  the  fall  of  the  same  year  (1900)  a single  row  of  wheat 
was  planted  from  the  seed  in  each  of  these  envelopes,  and  in 
each  case  seed  of  similar  breeding  was  planted  side  by  side. 
Thus,  there  were  22  rows  of  one  kind,  each  row  representing  the 
progeny  of  a single  plant  of  the  year  before.  Then  came  11 
rows  of  another  kind,  and  so  on  through  the  whole  series.  Each 
row  this  second  }^ear  represented  the  progeny  of  a single  hy- 
brid seed  of  two  years  before. 

When  these  wheats  began  to  head  out  the  second  year, 
there  was  at  first  an  apparent  confirmation  of  what  the  books 
had  said.  In  every  row  there  were  several  very  distinct  kinds 
of  wheat,  and  first  I got  the  impression  that  we  had  nearly 
every  kind  of  wheat  imaginable  in  each  of  the  rows,  and  I 
looked  forward  with  some  misgiving  to  the  tremendous  task  of 
picking  out  of  this  immense  number  of  kinds  the  particular 
varieties  wanted.  In  the  first  rows  that  headed  out  a brief 
examination  of  one  of  the  rows  revealed  19  distinct  types  of 
wheat,  and  it  was  found  later  that  there  were  actually  24  dis- 
tinguishable types  in  that  row.  A great  deal  of  time  was  spent 
studying  these  wheats  while  they  were  heading  out. 

Discovery  of  the  Law  of  Recombination 

These  hybrids  were  grown  on  the  hillside  just  north  of  the 
college  barn.  One  day,  after  the  wheat  had  headed  out,  the 
writer  was  standing  on  the  top  of  the  hill  above  the  plats  look- 
ing down  at  them.  He  noticed  that  in  the  22  rows  near  the 
southwest  comer  of  the  grounds  there  were  no  bearded  heads, 
while  in  the  next  11  rows  there  were  some  bearded  heads  in 
every  row.  Instantly  the  thought  occurred  that  we  did  not 
simply  have  great  variability,  but  that  in  each  row  we  simply 
had  new  combinations  of  the  characters  of  the  original  parents. 
Examination  was  made  of  every  row  of  the  hybrids  at  once, 
and  in  every  case  it  was  found  that  what  was  present  was  sim- 
ply recombinations  of  the  original  parent  characters,  and  noth- 
ing else.  Along  with  the  recognition  of  this  fact  came  the 


14 


State  College  Experiment  Station 


suggestion  that  if  there  is  a law  requiring  each  possible  com- 
bination of  the  original  parent  characters  to  occur  in  the  second 
generation  of  a hybrid,  that  this  law  would  require  each  of 
these  combinations  to  occur  in  a definite  proportion  in  each 
row.  This  point  could  not  be  determined  until  the  wheats 
were  ripe,  but  as  soon  as  they  were  ripe  enough  the  plants  in 
each  row  were  pulled  and  then  separated  into  the  different 
kinds  present.  Figure  3 illustrates  the  result.  At  the  top  of 


Figure  3 

First  and  second  generations  of  the  hybrid  between  Valley  and  Little  Club. 
In  the  left  half —Little  Club  pollen  was  placed  on  Valley  stigmas;  in  right  half 
the  reverse  cross  was  made  A',  A",  A"  \ a'  a\  a" All  first  generation  hybrids. 
T o the  right  of  each  is  shown  its  progeny. 


Bulletin  No.  89 — The  Hybrid  Wheats 


15 


the  figure  is  shown  the  parents  of  the  cross,  namely,  Little 
Club  and  Valley.  *In  the  left  half  of  the  figure  are  shown  the 
results  of  using  Little  Club  pollen  on  Valley  stigmas ; the  right 
half  of  the  figure  shows  the  reverse  cross — that  is,  Valley  pol- 
len on  Little  Club  heads. 

As  previously  stated,  eleven  hybrids  were  grown,  represent- 
ing the  cross  of  Little  Club  on  Valley.  Three  others  repre- 
senting the  opposite  cross  were  growm.  Three  first  generation 
hybrids  of  each  of  these  crosses  are  shown  in  Figure  3,  three  at 
the  extreme  left,  and  three  in  the  middle  of  the  figure  to  the 
right  of  the  space  between  the  right  and  left  halves.  It  is 
seen  that  each  of  these  six  heads  is  very  similar  to  Little  Club, 
but  that  most  of  them  have  a very  slight  tendency  to  be  beard- 
ed. The  second  generation  is  shown  to  the  right  of  each  of  the 
six  first  generation  plants.  Take,  for  instance,  the  upper  right 
hand  portion  of  the  figure  ; the  plant  marked  “A*”is  a first  gen- 
eration hybrid.  The  six  plants  to  the  right  of  it,  marked  Cl- 
C6,  were  all  grown  from  the  seed  of  one  plant  marked  “A*.” 
Similarly,  the  six  plants  to  the  right  of  each  of  the  first  gener- 
ation hybrids  grew  from  the  seed  of  the  first  generation  hy- 
brid at  the  left  of  each  group.  It  is  seen  that  in  the  case  of  each 
of  the  six  first  generation  hybrids  the  second  generation  con- 
sists of  the  same  six  types  of  wheat.  In  each  case  there  are  two 
long  heads,  one  bearded,  and  the  other  smooth ; two  club  heads, 
one  bearded  and  the  other  smooth ; and  two  heads  of  intermedi- 
ate length,  one  bearded,  the  other  smooth. 

Furthermore,  the  long  bearded  head  at  the  left  of  each 
group  of  six  constituted  about  6 per  cent  of  the  row  in  which 
it  grew.  That  is,  6 per  cent  of  the  row  had  long  bearded  heads 
like  those  sown.  The  long  smooth  head  in  each  case  con- 
stituted about  18  per  cent  of  each  row,  and  so  on  for  each  of 
the  other  types. 

We  may  now  state  the  law  of  recombination,  which  is  as 
follows : In  the  second  generation  of  a hybrid  there  tends  to 
occur  every  possible  combination  of  the  original  parent  char- 
acters and  every  possible  hybrid  between  these  combinations. 


16 


State  College  Experiment  Station 


The  first  part  of  this  law  was  enunciated  by  the  writer  in  an 
article  read  before  the  Association  of  American  Agricultural 
C(  liege  and  Experiment  tations  in  November,  1901,  which  was 
published  in  Bulletin  115  of  the  Office  of  Experiment  Stations 
of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 

As  soon  as  this  law  was  recognized  in  the  hybrid  wheats  it 
was  clear  that  in  each  of  the  crosses  made  we  had  obtained 
what  we  had  planned  for,  namely,  some  plants  in  which  we  had 
combined  the  winter  hardiness  of  the  winter  types,  the  stiff 
straw  of  the  Club  type,  and  the  tightly  closed  chaff  of  the 
Club  type,  and  subsequently  this  was  found  to  be  the  case. 

The  law  of  recombination  is  so  important  that  it  deserves 
further  illustration.  Figure  4 shows  all  the  combinations  that 
can  be  made  of  the  winter  and  spring  character,  weak  and  stiff 
straw,  open  and  closed  chaff.  When  we  cross  a winter  and  a 
spring  wheat,  in  the  second  generation  of  the  hybrid  one-fourth 
of  the  progeny  is  pure  winter  wheat,  one-fourth  of  it  pure 
spring  wheat,  the  remaining  half  of  it  is  hybrid  between  spring 
and  winter  wheat,  as  shown  in  Fig.  1.  Then  if  the  parent 
winter  wheat  has  weak  stems  and  the  parent  spring  wheat  stiff 
stems,  each  of  the  three  groups  mentioned  above  is  subdivided 
further  into  three  groups,  one-fourth  of  each  being  pure  weak 
stem,  one-fourth  pure  stiff  stem,  the  remaining  half  hybrid  be- 
tween weak  and  stiff  stem.  This  gives  us  nine  types  based 
on  the  winter  and  spring  character  and  on  the  stiffness  of  the 
straw.  Then  with  each  of  these  nine  types  we  may  have  pure 
open  chaff,  pure  closed  chaff,  and  the  hybrid  between  the  two, 
thus  making  in  all  27  types  that  occur  in  the  second  generation. 
Of  course,  if  the  parents  differ  in  other  respects  these  types  will 
be  further  subdivided. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  in  Figure  4 eight  of  the  types  are 
marked  with  a cross  mark  after  them.  These  eight  types  are 
all  pure  with  reference  to  all  three  of  the  characters  concerned 
- — that  is,  they  are  not  hybrid  with  any  reference  to  any  of  these 
characters,  and  this  means  that  they  will  reproduce  true  to  type 
and  require  no  further  selection  to  fix  up  their  type.  The  one 
type  which  was  sought  in  this  work  is  marked,  in  Figure  4, 


Bulletin  No.  89 — The  Hybrid  Wheats 


17 


ST/i/nv  cmapp 

f Open. 


WEAK 


*Y/A/r£R 


Close.  + 

Open 

A 

Close 

Open,  * 
x 

Close  ♦ -f 
Open 

y 

Close 

Open 

x 

Close 

Open. 


Close 


SRR//YG 


Close 

Open 


Close 
Open.  + 


sr/pp 


x 


Figure  4 

Diagram  illustrating  second  generation  of  the  hybrid  between  a winter 
wheat  with  a weak  straw  and  open  chaff  and  a spring  wheat  with  stiff 
straw  and  closed  chaff.  Illustrates  law  of  recombination. 


18 


State  College  Experiment  Station 


with  two  cross  marks.  It  has  the  pure  winter  character,  pure 
stiff  straw,  and  pure  closed  chaff. 

Unfortunately,  it  is  not  always  possible  to  tell  the  hybrid 
from  one  of  the  pure  types,  so  that  generally  speaking  it  is 
necessary  to  plant  many  of  these  27  types  again,  saving  the 
seed  from  each  plant  separately,  in  order  to  see  from  the  next 
generation  which  of  the  plants  are  hybrid  and  which  are  not. 
But  by  the  third  generation  it  is  possible  to  pick  out  any  de- 
sired pure  combination  in  a perfectly  pure  form  that  will  there- 
after reproduce  itself  true  to  seed. 

At  the  time  this  law  of  recombination  was  discovered  it  was 
not  recognized  that  in  the  second  generation  every  possible 
hybrid  between  the  different  forms  would  also  occur  along 
with  the  various  combinations  in  the  second  generation.  This 
fact  and  the  reason  for  it  were  discovered  by  others  shortly 
before  the  work  here  reported  was  done.  In  1899  Professor 
Hugo  De  Vries,  of  Holland,  published  a little  pamphlet  giving 
this  discovery  in  full.  Immediately  thereafter  Professor  Wil- 
liam Bateson,  of  England,  Professor  E.  Von  Tschermak,  of 
Austria,  and  Professor  C.  Correns,  of  Germany,  published  data 
showing  that  they  had  discovered  the  same  laws,  and  at  the 
same  time  Professor  Correns  called  attention  to  the  fact  that 
these  laws  had  been  worked  out  in  very  complete  form  and  pub- 
lished in  1865  by  a priest  in  an  Austrian  monastery.  This 
priest’s  name  was  Gregor  Mendel,  and  the  law  is  now  known 
as  Mendel’s  law. 

Mention  has  already  been  made  of  the  fact  that  it  is  not  al- 
ways possible  to  tell  a hybrid  from  one  of  the  pure  forms  re- 
lated to  it.  For  instance,  in  Figure  3 the  three  heads  of  wheat 
shown  at  the  extreme  left  are  hybrids  between  the  two  shown 
at  the  top  of  the  figure.  These  hybrids  have  the  Club  character 
of  one  of  the  parents.  They  also  have  the  long  head  character 
of  the  other  parent,  but  it  does  not  show.  It  does  show,  how- 
ever, in  their  progeny.  Furthermore,  one  of  the  parents  is 
bearded  and  the  other  smooth.  The  hybrids  are  either  not  at  all 
bearded  or  very  slightly  so.  Mendel  expressed  this  by  saying 
that  when  two  opposite  characters  meet  in  the  same  individual 


Bulletin  No.  89 — The  Hybrid  Wheats 


19 


one  of  these  characters  usually  dominates  the  other  and  only 
one  of  them  shows.  The  one  which  does  show  is  called  the 
dominant  character,  the  other  is  the  recessive  character.  This 
fact  is  usually  referred  to  as  the  “law  of  dominance.’ ’ We  have 
many  illustrations  of  it.  Ordinarily  when  we  cross  a white 
breed  of  hogs  with  a black  breed  the  pigs  are  all  white.  Thus, 
the  white  is  dominant  and  black  is  recessive  in  this  cross.  Sim- 
ilarly, when  we  cross  a pure  polled  animal  with  a horned  breed 
the  calves  are  all  polled,  or  at  least  have  only  scurs,  and  hence 
we  say  that  in  cattle  the  poll  character  is  dominant  and  horns 
recessive. 

But  this  relation  between  two  opposite  characters  does  not 
always  hold.  For  instance,  there  are  two  breeds  of  Andalusian 
fowls,  one  of  which  is  black  and  the  other  white  with  black 
splashes  on  the  feathers.  We  will  refer  to  the  latter  breed 
simply  as  the  white  Andalusian.  If  we  cross  these  two  breeds 
the  hybrid  is  neither  black  nor  white  but  blue,  and  this  is  always 
the  case.  In  this  cross  we  do  not  have  the  phenomenon  of 
dominance.  If  we  mate  these  blue  Andalusians  together,  in  the 
next  generation  one-fourth  of  the  chicks  are  pure  black,  one- 
fourth  of  them  are  pure  white  (with  black  splashes),  the  re- 
maining half  are  blue — that  is,  they  are  hybrids  between  the 
white  and  the  black,  as  called  for  by  the  law  of  recombination. 

Cause  of  the  Law  of  Recombination 

The  reason  why  we  find  in  the  second  generation  of  a hy- 
brid every  possible  combination  of  the  characters  of  the  original 
parent  of  the  hybrid  is  seen  in  what  follows.  The  bodies  of 
plants  and  animals  are  made  up  of  small  particles  called  cells. 
These  cells  are  very  complex  in  their  internal  structure  and 
contain  a number  of  small  organs  which  are  believed  in  some 
way  to  be  responsible  for  the  hereditary  characters.  Growth 
takes  place  by  the  enlargement  of  the  cells,  and  when  a cell 
in  a young  growing  animal  reaches  full  size  it  divides  into 


20 


State  College  Experiment  Station 


two  cells.  This  is  shown  in  Figure  5.  The  left  hand  part  of 
the  figure,  under  the  word  “somatic,”  shows  the  manner  in 
which  this  ordinary  cell  division  occurs.  Figure  5 shows  the 


Figure  5 

Illustrating  cell  division.  Ordinary  division  of  body  cell  at  left;  at 
right,  type  of  division  when  cells  are  produced. 


cells  of  an  animal  which  is  a hybrid  between  a polled  and  a 
horned  breed.  When  a cell  divides  the  little  organs  which  re- 
present the  two  hereditary  characters  in  question  line  up  in  the 
middle  of  the  cell  and  divide  as  the  cell  divides,  giving  two  new 
cells  each  of  which  is  provided  with  the  two  characters.  Thus, 
presumably,  every  cell  in  the  body  of  such  a hybrid  has  in  it  the 
basis  for  both  the  poll  character  and  the  horn  character.  But 
when  reproductive  cells  are  produced  the  cell  division  occurs 
in  a different  way,  as  shown  in  the  right  hand  portion  of  Fig- 
ure 5.  The  two  organs  representing  the  two  characters  line 
up  side  by  side  and  the  cell  division  occurs  between  them,  so 
that  two  kinds  of  reproductive  cells  are  produced,  one  bearing 
the  poll  character,  the  other  the  horn  character. 

Figure  6 shows  the  method  of  producing  reproductive  cells 
in  a hybrid  between  the  Polled  Durham,  which  has  a polled 
head  and  a colored  face,  and  the  Hereford,  which  has  horns  and 
a whit  face.  Here  we  have  two  pairs  of  opposed  characters, 
one  pair  consisting  of  P and  H,  the  other  of  white  (W)  and 
colored  face  (C.)  These  two  pairs  of  characters  line  up  at  the 
time  when  reproductive  cells  are  produced,  and  each  pair  is 


Bulletin  No.  89 — The  Hybrid  Wheats 


21 


LAW  OF  RECOMBMTm K 

GERM  CELLS  OF  HYBRID. 


PROGENY  OF  HYBRID. 


PW 

HC 

PC 

HW 

PW 

PPWW 

P/HA/c 

PP  Wc 

Ph  WIN 

HC 

Ph  Wc 

HHCC 

PhCC 

HHWC 

PC 

PPWC 

PhCC 

PPCC 

PhWc 

HW 

PhWW 

HHWC 

Ph  Wc 

HHWW 

I.PPWW  Z.  PhWW  /.  HHWW 

Z.PPWC  R.  Ph  Wc  Z.  HHWC 

t.PPcC  Z.  Ph  CC  /.  PHCC 

Figure  6 

Explanation  of  law  of  recombination.  See  text. 


22 


State  College  Experiment  Station 


separated  by  the  division.  But  the  two  pairs  are  independent 
of  each  other  and  may  stand  as  shown  at  the  left  or  as  shown 
at  the  right  in  the  upper  part  of  Figure  6.  This  gives  us  four 
possible  kinds  of  reproductive  cells,  one  containing  the  poll 
character  and  the  white  face,  another  the  horn  character  and 
and  colored  face,  a third  the  poll  character  and  the  colored 
face,  while  the  fourth  contains  the  horn  character  and  the  white 
face.  Now  each  sex  produces  all  four  kinds  of  reproductive 
cells.  Below  the  circles  in  Figure  6 are  shown  all  the  uossible 
unions  of  these  cells,  sixteen  in  all.  When  P and  H occur 
together  the  H is  written  small  because  the  horn  character  is 
recessive.  Likewise,  when  W and  C occur  together  the  C is 
written  small  because  white  face  is  dominant  and  colored  face 
recessive.  It  will  be  noticed  that  some  of  the  sixteen  types  are 
alike.  At  the  bottom  of  Fig.  6 are  shown  the  different  types 
which  do  occur  and  the  proportion  in  which  they  occur.  Thus, 
in  a cross  where  the  parents  differ  in  respect  of  two  pairs  of 
characters,  in  the  second  generation  there  are  nine  types  of 
progeny.  It  will  be  noticed  that  of  the  nine  types  shown  in  the 
lower  part  of  Figure  6,  four  of  them  are  pure  with  reference  to 
all  the  characters  that  occur  in  them,  while  the  remaining  five 
are  hybrid  with  reference  to  one  or  both  of  the  character  pairs. 

The  writer  claims  only  to  have  discovered  the  fact  that  in 
the  second  generation  of  a hybrid  every  possible  combination  of 
the  original  parent  character  occurs.  He  did  not  discover  the 
law  of  dominance  or  the  fact  that  in  the  second  generation,  in 
addition  to  all  the  possible  combinations  of  parent  characters, 
there  also  occurs  every  possible  hybrid  between  these  com- 
binations. Mendel  was  the  first  to  discover  all  these  things, 
including  the  law  of  recombination. 

Field  Tests  of  Hybrid  Wheats 

The  work  of  selecting  out  fixed  types  of  these  hybrids  (it 
must  be  understood  that  there  are  many  types  secured  from  each 
of  the  original  hybrids)  and  of  propagating  sufficient  seed  of 
them  to  give  them  field  trial  occupied  the  years  1902,  1903,  and 
1904.  Meanwhile,  many  other  hybrids  were  produced.  The 


Bulletin  No.  89 — The  Hybrid  Wheats 


23 


writer  severed  his  connection  with  the  Washington  State  Ex- 
periment station  to  take  up  ihs  work  with  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture  January  1,  1902.  Since  that  time 
the  work  with  these  hybrid  wheats  has  been  carried  on  by  his 
successor,  Prof.  E.  E.  Elliott,  and  his  assistants,  especially  Mr. 
Jno.  Evans  and  Mr.  C.  W.  Lawrence.  The  work  of  picking  out 
the  fixed  types  and  of  testing  them  to  ascertain  which  were 
most  worthy  of  distribution  amongst  the  farmers  of  the  state 
has  been  done  mostly  by  Mr.  Lawrence,  under  the  direction  of 
Prof.  Elliott. 

In  1905  field  tests  for  yield  began.  The  following  data  con- 
cerning these  tests  have  been  kindly  furnished  the  writer  by 
Mr.  C.  W.  Lawrence  of  the  Washington  State  Experiment  Sta- 
tion, who  now  has  charge  of  the  work  with  these  hybrid  wheats. 
Part  of  the  data  has  already  been  published  in  Popular  Bulle- 
tin No.  9 of  the  Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 
(August,  1908).  It  is  thought  proper  to  re-publish  it  here  in  or- 
der to  bring  the  facts  regarding  these  hybrid  wheats  together 
for  convenience  and  reference. 


Hybrid 

White 

Track 

X Little  Club 

Crop  of 

Crop 

of  Crop  of 

Crop  of 

1905 

1906 

1907 

1908 

Average 

143  A * 

30 

58 

53 

38 

44.75 

143  B 

51.50 

51.50 

Turl 

sey  X : 

Little  Club 

60 

31-32 

49.50 

37.50 

61  A 

35.50 

56 

40-50 

36 

42 

61  B 

52.50 

52.50 

63  A 

36.50 

60 

41.50 

36.50 

43.62 

63  B 

30.31 

52.50 

40.72 

150 

36.50 

60 

42.00 

36.50 

43.75 

67 

108  A 
108  B 
123 


Winter  Fife  X Little  Club 
37  65  52 


36.50  60 


36.50 


52 

30-33 

51 


38.50 

37 

54 

36 


48 

46.37 

42.69 

46.62 


60 


24 


State  College  Experiment  Station 


Hybrid 

White  Track  X Little  Club 

Crop  of 

Crop  of 

Crop  of 

Crop  of 

1905 

1906 

1907 

1908 

Average 

128 

37 

60 

53 

37 

46.75 

219  A 

33.50 

57 

49 

35.50 

43.75 

219  B 

29.30 

52.50 

37.16 

Red  Russian  A 

29 

58 

46.50 

33.50 

41.75 

Red  Russian  B 

28.50 

53 

37.50 

50.50 

42.37 

Little  Club  A 

59 

45.50 

34.50 

r43.33 

Little  Club  B 

52 

38.50 

48 

r46.16 

^Letters  following 

the  same 

number 

indicate 

different 

strains  selected  from  the  same  original  stock  except  in  the  case 
of  Little  Club ; A and  B here  simply  represent  duplicate  plats 
of  this  variety. 

rThis  average  is  too  high,  as  it  does  not  include  the  low 
yields  of  1905. 

It  will  be  seen  by  comparing  the  last  four  lines  of  this  table 
for  the  years  1906,  1907,  and  1908,  that  Red  Russian  and 
Little  Club  yield  about  the  same.  Furthermore,  the  average 
yields  for  Little  Club  in  the  right  hand  column  do  not  contain 
the  low  yields  of  1905,  and  are  hence  too  high.  Taking  42 
bushels  as  the  average  yield  of  Red  Russian  for  the  four  years, 
every  one  of  the  hybrids,  except  219  B,  63  B,  61  A and  60  B, 
has  outyielded  Red  Russian  on  the  average  of  the  four  years. 

The  excess  of  yield  of  the  hybrids  over  Red  Russian  i,s  as 
follows : 

No.  143  A 2.75  bushels 

No.  143  B 9.5  bushels 


No.  61  B 
No.  63  A 
No.  150  . , 
No.  67  . , 
No.  108  A 
No.  108  B 
No.  123  . 
No.  128  . 
No.  219  A 


10.5  bushels 

1.6  bushels 

1.75  bushels 
6 bushels 
4.37  bushels 

.69  bushels 

4.6  bushels 

4.75  bushels 

1.75  bushels 


Bulletin  No.  89 — The  Hybrid  Wheats 


25 


It  must  be  remembered  that  the  main  object  sought  in  this 
work  was  to  secure  hardy  winter  strains  that  had  stiff  straw 
and  tightly  closed  chaff.  Even  if  the  hybrids  yield  no  more 
in  a favorable  season  than  Red  Russian  or  the  ordinary  Little 
Club,  if  they  have  winter  hardiness  they  possess  an  enormous 
advantage.  It  is  seen,  however,  that  in  addition  to  winter  hard- 
iness some  of  the  hybrids  yield  considerably  more  than  the  Red 
Russian  and  Little  Club. 

As  will  be  seen  later,  the  advantage  in  yield  of  the  hybrids 
is  even  greater  in  the  tests  made  by  farmers,  after  seeds  were 
distributed  to  them,  than  on  these  experimental  plats.  It  ap- 
pears to  be  quite  safe  to  say  that  the  hybrids  will  yield  an 
average  of  five  bushels  more  per  acre,  under  general  field  con- 
ditions, than  Red  Russian,  and  in  many  tests,  under  field  con- 
ditions, the  difference  has  been  as  much  as  ten  bushels,  and  in 
some  cases  even  more. 

The  distribution  of  seed  to  farmers  began  in  1907.  Those 
hybrids  which  had  proved  most  promising  at  the  experiment 
station  were  distributed.  Through  the  kindness  of  President 
E.  A.  Bryan,  of  the  Washington  State  College,  I am  able  to 
present  below  the  following  reports  of  farmers  who  have  grown 
some  of  these  wheats. 

C.  B.  Keglev,  Master  of  the  Washington  State  Orange,  re- 
ports : ‘ ‘ My  hybrid  wheat  averaged  a little  over  more  than  40 
bushels  per  acre.  My  Red  Russian  averaged  25  bushels.  The 
two  fields  join,  the  soil  is  the  same,  the  ground  was  cultivated 
the  same  way,  and  sown  at  the  same  time,  the  seeder  going  from 
one  field  to  the  other,  part  of  both  being  planted  the  same  day. 
The  hybrid  wheat  is  worth  from  two  to  four  cents  per  bushel 
more  than  the  Red  Russian.  With  an  increase  of  40  per  cent 
in  the  yield  and  the  two  to  four  cents  additional  on  the  price 
further  comment  seems  unnecessary.  It  costs  no  more  to  raise 
an  acre  of  one  than  of  the  other.  ’ ’ 

A.  J.  D.  Cornelius,  of  Colfax,  who  grew  nearly  5,000  bushels 
of  hybrids  123  and  128  this  season,  says:  “I  can  safely  say 

that  these  wheats  outyielded  standard  varieties  grown  under 
similar  conditions  by  at  least  ten  bushels  per  acre.” 


26 


State  College  Experiment  Station 


Osborne  Bros.,  of  Coulee  City,  report  No.  128  as  much  super- 
ior in  yielding  power  and  ability  to  stand  without  shattering 
to  anything  they  have  ever  tried. 

E.  C.  Bratt,  Plaza,  reports:  “No.  128  outyielded  any  win- 
ter wheat  I have  heard  of  in  this  immediate  locality.’ * 

Karl  Gerhard,  Hatton,  writes:  “I  threshed  13  sacks  of 

wheat  from  one  sack  of  seed  I got  from  you.  Owing  to  the 
hot  weather  and  the  winds  it  shriveled  some  and  did  not  yield 
as  well  as  under  favorable  conditions,  this  being  a bad  year. 
I find  it  does  not  shell  out  as  easy  as  the  old  kinds  and  the  straw 
is  strong.  Had  we  had  normal  weather  conditions  I am  satis- 
fied the  yield  would  have  been  large.  I will  sell  none  of  the 
wheat  as  I want  to  sow  all  of  it  this  fall.” 

A.  F.  Suksdorf,  Spangle,  writes:  “I  am  well  pleased  with 
the  hybrid  wheats.  I am  well  satisfied  that  No.  108  will  go  ten 
to  fifteen  bushels  more  than  Gold  Coin.” 

Mr.  H.  E.  Schreck,  LaCrosse,  writes;  “I  have  hybrid  No.  63 
which  made  a phenominal  growth.  I have  it  headed  since  July 
19.  I expect  a full  forty  yield.  P.  W.  Cox,  Hay  Station,  reports 
No.  63  ahead  of  anything  on  his  farm  and  Mr.  Guske,  LaCrosse, 
thinks  that  nothing  equals  No.  123.  I headed  Chas.  Schreck ’s 
No.  63  and  found  it  good  for  forty  bushels.  The  report  from 
Mr.  Clemans  it  that  it  is  ahead  of  all  other  crops.” 

In  a later  letter  Mr.  Schreck  says:  “Hybrid  No.  63  gained 
quite  a notoriety  and  I am  sending  small  lots  all  over  eastern 
Washington,  Eastern  Oregon,  some  orders  from  Montana,  one 
from  Juliaetta,  Idaho,  and  have  orders  from  Ogden,  Utah.  I 
shipped  a car  of  435  sacks  to  Hooper,  Washtunca,  and  Connell.” 
Girard  Clark,  Albion,  writes:  “No.  123  was  fine,  making 
over  fifty  bushels  per  acre  and  testing  63  pounds.  I sold  all  I 
had  to  spare  at  $1  per  bushel.  I have  grown  both  wheat  and 
oats  on  the  land  where  I sowed  the  college  grain  last  year,  and 
have  done  some  experimenting  of  my  own  with  all  of  the  best 
varieties  known  to  the  farmers  of  this  section,  but  I never  have 
secured  such  good  results  from  any  of  them  as  I did  from  these 
hybrids  this  year,  and  it  was  not  a particularly  favorable  sea- 
son either.  The  grain  not  only  yielded  far  heavier  than  any 


Bulletin  No.  89 — The  Hybrid  Wheats 


27 


other  that  I have  ever  grown,  but  the  quality  was  also  superior. 
Neither  does  the  wheat  shatter  so  much  as  the  common  kinds 
grown  heretofore,  nor  do  the  “college  oats,”  as  they  are  com- 
monly called,  lodge  to  any  great  extent,  although  the  growth 
is  rank.  The  straw  is  sturdy  enough  to  support  the  weight  of 
the  heads,  even  during  heavy  winds  and  rainstorms,  and  though 
beaten  down  by  the  storm  the  greater  portion  of  it  will  rise 
again  as  soon  as  it  dries.” 

President  Bryan  informs  me  in  a letter  dated  February 
23,  1909,  that  there  was  sown  of  these  hybrids,  in  the  fall  of 
1908,  according  to  very  careful  estimates,  39,000  acres. 

It  now  seems  likely  that  these  hardy  wheats  will  add  at 
least  five  bushels  per  acre  to  the  yield  of  wheat  in  Eastern 
Washington.  They  are  of  course  also  adapted  to  adjacent  por- 
tions of  other  states. 

This  work  is  an  instance  of  how  science  may  come  to  the 
aid  of  the  farmer.  It  is  only  in  recent  years  that  scientists  have 
turned  their  attention  to  the  practical  problems  which  confront 
the  farmer  on  every  hand.  The  results  have  been  gratifying. 
They  have  not  only  been  helpful  to  the  farmer  but  the  recogni- 
tion of  the  value  of  scientific  research  has  given  popular  support 
to  it ; and  even  those  scientists  who  formerly  boasted  that  they 
pursued  science  for  science’s  sake  have  been  brought  to  see 
that  science  for  humanity’s  sake  is  something  better,  and  that 
the  object  of  all  scientific  work  should  be  to  render  service  to 
mankind. 


LIST  OF  BULLETINS 


The  following  bulletins  of  this  Station  are  now  available  for 
distribution.  Copies  of  them  may  be  obtained  free  of  charge  by 
writing  to  the  Director  of  the  Exepriment  Station,  Pullman,  Wash. 
Missing  numbers  are  out  of  print. 

General  Bulletins 

11.  Preliminary  Report  of  Feeding  Test  With  Swine. 

31.  Irrigation  Experiments  in  Sugar  Beet  Culture  in  Yakima  Val- 
ley. 

33.  Fiber  Flax  Investigation. 

34.  The  Russian  Thistle  in  Washington. 

37.  The  Present  Status  of  the  Russian  Thistle  in  Washington. 

41.  Grasses  and  Forage  Plants  in  Washington. 

4 2.  A New  Sugar  Beet  Pest  and  Other  Insects  Attacking  Beets. 
47.  The  Variegated  Cut-Worm. 

4.8.  Mechanical  Ration  Computer. 

49.  Alkali  and  Alkali  Soils. 

59.  Root  Diseases  of  Fruit  and  Other  Trees  Caused  by  Toadstools. 

60.  A Report  on  the  Range  Conditions  of  Central  Washington. 

67.  Some  Notes  Concerning  Halphen’s  Test  For  Cotton  Seed  Oil. 

68.  The  Wormy  Apple. 

70.  Powdery  Mildews  in  Washington. 

71.  Preserving  Eggs. 

72.  The  Chemical  Composition  of  Washington  Forage  Crops. 

74.  Two  Insects  Pests  of  the  Elm. 

76.  The  Economic  Preparation  of  the  Sulphur-Lime  Spray. 

77.  The  Codling  Moth  in  the  Yakima  Valley. 

7 8.  The  Goat  Industry  in  Western  Washington. 

79.  Steer  Feeding  Under  Eastern  Washington  Conditions. 

80.  Growing  Alfalfa  Without  Irrigation  in  Washington. 

81.  The  Codling  Moth  in  Eastern  Washington. 

82.  I — Chemical  Composition  of  Washington  Forage  orops. 

II — Analyses  of  Concentrated  Feeding  Stuffs. 

83.  Some  Important  Plant  Diseases. 

86.  The  Codling  Moth  in  1907. 

8<.  Raspberries,  Blackberries  and  Loganberries  in  Washington. 

88.  Lime  as  a Fertilizer. 

89.  A History  of  the  Hybrid  Wheats. 

Popular  Bulletins 

1.  Announcements. 

4.  Notes  on  Swine  Management. 

6.  The  Milling  Quality  of  Washington  Wheats. 

7.  Soil  Survey  of  the  State. 

8.  Orchard  Cover  Crops. 

9.  Some  New  Hybrid  Wheats. 

10.  Silo  Construction. 

11.  Commercial  Potato  Growing. 

12.  The  Care  of  Milk  on  the  Farm. 

13.  Spraying  Calendar  for  1908. 

14.  Planting  an  Apple  Orchard. 

15.  Methods  of  Tillage  For  Dry  Farming. 

17.  The  Single  Spray  For  the  Codling  Moth. 

18.  Growing  Raspberries  and  Blackberries  in  Washington. 

19.  The  Use  of  Fertilizer  Lime. 

20.  Summary  of  Experiment  Station  Work. 


State  College  of  Washington 

Agricultural  Experiment  Station 

PULLMAN.  WASHINGTON 

DEPARTMENT  OF  HORTICULTURE 

Forest,  Shade  and  Ornamental 
Trees  in  Washington 

By  W.  S.  THORNBER 

BULLETIN  No.  90 
1909 


Fig.  1.  A Group  of  Colorado  Blue  Spruce 


All  bulletins  of  this  Station  sent  free  to  Citizens  of  the  State  on  application  to  director 


BOARD  OF  CONTROL 


LEE  A.  JOHNSON,  President,  Sunnyside. 

P.  J.  BARNARD,  Treasurer,  Seattle. 

E.  A.  BRYAN,  Secretary  Ex-Officio,  Pullman. 
President  of  the  College 
J.  J.  BROWNE,  Spokane. 

DR.  J.  S.  ANDERSON,  Sunnyside. 
PETER  McGREGOR,  Colfax. 


STATION  STAFF 


R.  W.  THATCHER,  M.  A., 

ELTON  FULMER,  M.  A., 

S.  B.  NELSON,  D.  Y.  M., 

0.  L.  WALLER,  Ph.  M., 

R.  K.  BEATTIE,  A.  M., 
WALTER  S.  THORNBER,  M.  S., 
A.  L.  MELANDER,  M.  S., 

GEORGE  SEVERANCE,  B.  S., 

C.  W.  LAWRENCE,  B.  S.,  # - 
W.  H.  LAWRENCE,  M.  S.,  ’ - 

w.  t.  McDonald,  m.  s.  a., 

C.  C.  THOM,  M.  S., 

H.  B.  HUMPHREY,  Ph.  D., 

W.  T.  SHAW,  B.  S., 

GEORGE  A.  OLSON,  M.  S., 
ALEX  CARLYLE, 

E.  L.  PETERSON,  B.  S., 

REX  N.  HUNT,  M.  S.,  - 

W.  H.  HEIN,  M.  A., 

W.  L.  HADLOCK,  B.  S., 


Director  and  Chemist 
State  Chemist 
Y eterinarian 
Irrigation  Engineer 
Botanist 
Horticulturist 
Entomologist 
Agronomist 
Cereal  ist 
Plant  Pathologist 
Animal  Husbandman 
Soil  Physicist 
Plant  Pathologist 
Assistant  Zoologist 
Assistant  Chemist 
Assistant  Cerealist 
Assistant  Soil  Physicist 
Assistant  Botanist 
Assistant  Horticulturist 
Assistant  Chemist 


Introduction 


The  large  number  of  communications  asking  for  help  and 
suggestions  along  forest  and  shade  tree  problems,  and  the  al- 
most universal  desire  of  improving  the  rural  as  well  as  the  vil- 
lage and  city  homes  of  our  state,  have  suggested  the  publica- 
tion of  this  bulletin. 

Bulletin  No.  12  of  this  station,  published  in  1894  by  Pro- 
fessor Balmer,  gave  valuable  advice  to  the  early  planter  and 
now  since  many  of  the  trees  planted  two  years  previous  to 
that  time  have  made  splendid  growths,  it  seems  advisable  to 
publish  another  report  upon  their  behavior  with  the  additional 
notes  that  it  has  been  possible  to  secure  from  various  parts 
of  the  state. 

During  the  past  fifteen  years  the  Experiment  Station  has 
tested  a large  number  of  species  and  varieties  of  trees  and 
while  a few  have  proved  too  tender  or  have  too  readily  suc- 
cumbed to  disease  or  insect  pests,  yet  a remarkably  large  num- 
ber have  made  very  creditable  showings. 

The  plantations  of  shade  and  forest  trees  made  by  the  early 
settlers  in  various  parts  of  the  state  are  today  the  most  valuable 
guides  for  future  plantings  that  one  could  desire.  While  in 
some  cases  these  early  plantations  are  only  the  tombstones  of 
an  ambitious  planter’s  efforts,  yet  in  most  instances  they  stand 
out  prominently  as  valuable  sugestions  for  the  present  day 
planter. 

The  question  of  what  to  plant  has,  to  a certain  degree,  been 
settled,  and  now  no  one  need  plant  a Box  Elder  or  Lombardy 
Poplar,  feeling  that  they  are  the  only  trees  that  will  make  a 
rapid  growth  or  withstand  our  long,  dry  summers.  Our  list  of 


tested  trees  has  been  extended  until  now  one  could  secure  over 
a hundred  different  species  that  have  been  thoroughly  tested 
and  found  satisfactory  in  this  state. 

One  of  the  primary  needs  of  the  planter  of  today  is  more 
knowledge  relative  to  the  time,  manner  of  planting,  and  care  of 
the  trees.  More  young  trees  are  killed  at  the  time  of  trans- 
planting by  simply  ignoring  four  or  five  elementary  principles 
of  transplanting,  than  die  from  all  other  troubles  in  the  follow- 
ing years. 

It  is  very  gratifying  to  note  the  interest  that  is  felt  in  tree 
planting  in  the  wooded  as  well  as  treeless  areas  of  the  state, 
both  for  ornament  and  for  shelter  and  the  appreciation  of  the 
improvement  made  by  judicious  planting  about  the  home. 

While  the  recommendations  made  in  this  bulletin  as  to  the 
behavior  of  trees  are  primarily  based  upon  Eastern  Washington 
conditions,  yet  we  feel  that  they  will  generally  apply  to  all 
parts  of  the  state  since  the  writer  has  secured  information 
in  various  ways  from  many  parts  of  the  state,  and  also  believe 
that  whatever  will  do  well  here  will  do  well  in  other  parts  of 
the  state.  It  is  hoped  that  the  information  given  will  result 
in  increased  planting  in  cities,  towns,  and  rural  districts,  thus 
adding  to  the  pleasures  and  attractions  of  our  state. 


PART  I 


Propagation  of  Forest  and  Shade  Trees 


The  person  who  contemplates  planting  trees  must  either 
grow  his  own  trees  from  seed  or  cuttings,  or  buy  them  from  a 
nursery.  The  buying  of  shade  trees  from  a nursery  seems  to  in- 
cur more  expense  than  men  feel  able  to  bear,  yet  it  is  often 
more  economical  than  to  attempt  to  grow  them  on  the  farm. 
If  one  is  fortunate  enough  to  live  near  a native  timber  he  can 
frequently  secure  many  valuable  trees  at  a minimum  cost,  and 
yet  if  he  must  hire  teams  and  help  to  secure  these  trees,  the 
chances  are  that  they  wTill  cost  him  twice  as  much  as  better 
trees  of  the  same  species  and  size  from  the  nursery.  I do  not 
wish  to  discourage  the  idea  of  bringing  wild  plants  from  the 
woods  to  our  homes  and  yet  I feel  that  after  considering  all 
expenses,  this  is  not  an  economical  plan  to  pursue. 

Frequently,  one  may  secure  many  valuable  small  trees  from 
the  woods  and  after  growing  them  for  a year  or  more  in  nurs- 
ery rows,  they  will  be  first  class  for  all  kinds  of  planting.  This 
is  usually  the  best  plan  to  follow  when  transplanting  small  ever- 
greens from  the  forest,  since  they  are  usually  slender,  poorly 
rooted,  and  not  adapted  to  the  conditions  common  to  lawns 
and  parks. 

Cutting  and  Grafting.  A great  man y of  our  forest  and  shade 
trees,  such  as  willows,  cottonwoods,  and  aspens  may  be  pro- 
pagated from  cuttings  taken  any  time  after  the  leaves  fall  and 
before  the  trees  start  into  growth  in  the  spring.  Usually  the 
best  time  is  late  in  fall  or  early  in  the  winter  before  the  hard 
winter  freezing  has  had  a chance  to  lower  the  vitality  of  the 


6 


State  College  Experiment  Station 


young  branches,  but  good  trees  may  be  secured  from  cuttings 
taken  very  late  in  the  spring. 

The  best  materials  to  use  for  cuttings  is  the  present  year’s 
growth,  although  material  much  older  may  satisfactorily  be 
used.  These  switches  should  be  made  up  into  cuttings  about 
seven  inches  long  with  the  lower  end  cut  from  an  eighth  to  a 
sixteenth  of  an  inch  below  the  bud.  This  is  to  insure  more  re- 
serve plant  food  for  the  immediate  development  of  callus  and 
new  roots,  than  is  possible  to  secure  farther  from  the  buds. 
Little  or  no  attention  need  be  paid  as  to  where  or  how  the  top 
cut  is  made. 

If  the  soil  is  in  proper  condition  these  cuttings  may  be 
planted  as  soon  as  they  are  made,  or  stored  in  pits  or  boxes  in 
moist  soil,  saw  dust,  or  moss,  until  early  spring  and  then  plant- 
ed either  where  they  are  to  grow  into  trees,  or  in  nursery  rows 
for  one  or  more  years. 

When  a hedge  of  willows  is  desired  or  a wood  lot  is  being 
planted,  it  is  usually  best  to  plant  the  cuttings  where  they  are 
tc  grow,  otherwise  we  grow  them  for  one  year  in  rows  where 
thorough  cultivation  is  possible. 

Occasionally  we  desire  trees  that  can  not  be  successfully 
propagated  from  cuttings,  seeds,  or  suckers  and  so  it  is  neces- 
sary to  graft  them.  Last  year  we  propagated  a nice  bunch  of 
Thorn  trees  (Crataegus)  by  grafting  them  upon  common  apple 
stocks.  The  union  was  perfect  and  the  trees  are  now  apparent- 
1\  as  good  as  seedlings  of  four  or  five  years’  growth. 

Growing  Trees  From  Seed.  One  must  be  thoroughly  fami- 
liar with  the  habits  of  trees  to  know  when  it  is  best  time  to 
eodect  the  seeds  for  planting.  As  a general  rule  they  should 
be  gathered  as  soon  as  they  are  ripe,  and  even  before  this  if 
there  is  danger  of  squirrels  or  birds  taking  them.  While  this 
is  j ractically  the  same  time  each  year  fo,r  certain  species  it  does 
not  follow  that  all  trees  of  the  same  genera  ripen  their  seed 
at  the  same  time.  For  example,  the  Red  and  White  Maples  ma- 
ture their  seed  in  June  while  the  Norway,  English,  Sycamore, 
and.  many  others  do  not  mature  their  seed  until  October  or 
November. 


Bulletin  No.  90. — Forest,  Shade  and  Ornamental  Trees  7 


Fig.  2 ♦ White  Maple  from  Seed  Planted  in  June 

Photo  taken  in  September 


Fig.  3.  Two  year-old  White  Maples 


8 


State  College  Experiment  Station 


Great  care  should  be  exercised  as  to  the  condition  of  the 
trees  from  which  the  collector  secures  his  seed.  A much  bet- 
ter lot  of  seedlings  may  be  secured  from  a group  of  healthy 
trees  than  from  a stunted,  crowded,  diseased,  or  even  shaded 
trees.  Some  of  our  American  trees  are  already  showing  the 
evil  of  this  indiscriminate  method  of  securing  seeds,  and  so  it 
b ho<  t es  us  to  use  even  more  care  from  what  we  propagate  than 
we  do  for  corn,  wheat,  and  other  farm  crops. 

The  seeds  of  Red  Maple,  White  Maple  and  Elm  ripen  the 
last  of  June  and  should  be  gathered  and  planted  at  once  or 
mixed  ATith  moist  sand  and  stored  in  a cool  cellar  until  fall  or 
even  the  following  spring.  It  is  usually  best  to  plant  at  once 
and  by  so  doing  secure  a few  inches  of  growth  before  fall. 

In  the  case  of  the  Red  Maple  it  will  be  necessary  to  provide 
a slight  shade  of  some  sort,  as  the  young  plants  are  very  tender 
and  will  son -scald  or  die  outright  unless  protected. 

The  seeds  of  most  of  our  common  trees:  i.  e*  Ash,  Locust, 
Norway,  Sycamore,  and  English  Maples,  Hackberry,  Oak, 
Bin'll,  etc.,  ripen  during  October  and  should  be  gathered  and 
planted  at  once  or  stratified  in  twice  their  amount  of  sand 
and  stored  in  a cool,  shady  place  and  kept  moist  until  early 
spring,  when  they  should  be  planted  in  nursery  rows.  While 
most  of  these  seeds  will  germinate  without  freezing  during 
the  winter,  it  is  preferable  to  have  them  freeze. 

Sometimes  the  seeds  of  Catalpa,  Box  Elder,  Green  and  White 
Ash  remain  on  the  trees  until  late  winter  or  early  spring.  These 
may  be  gathered  and  planted  at  once,  but  it  is  not  a safe  plan 
to  depend  upon  their  clinging  so  late  as  winter. 

The  seeds  of  the  Honey  Locust,  Coffee  Bean  Tree  and  a few 
others  are  always  slow  about  germinating.  This  may  be  hasten- 
ed by  pouring  boiling  wTater  over  the  seeds  and  allowing  them 
remain  in  it  until  the  water  cools.  Then  sift  or  pick  out  all 
seeds  that  have  begun  to  swell  and  treat  the  remainder  to  an- 
other scalding  and  so  on  until  all  have  become  swollen,  after 
which  they  must  be  planted  at  once  in  moist  soil  or  they  will 
perish. 


Bulletin  No.  90. — Forest,  Shade  and  Ornamental  Trees  x 9 


Ash,  Box  Elder,  Black  Locust,  Catalpa,  and  Hackberry  seeds 
may  be  stored  dry,  providing  they  are  carefully  dried  out 
before  putting  away  and  are  kept  in  a cool,  rather  moist,  not 
damp,  room.  In  the  spring  they  must  be  soaked  a few  hours  be- 
fore planting  in  order  to  hasten  germination. 

The  collecting  of  Pine,  Spruce,  and  Fir  seed  requires  a little 
more  skill  and  care.  In  this  climate  most  of  these  start  to  ripen 
the  latter  part  of  August  or  early  in  September.  It  is  neces- 
sary to  gather  the  cones  before  they  have  started  to  open  since 
the  very  best  seeds  are  apt  to  scatter  out  early.  After  gathering 
the  cones  they  should  be  drid  in  a warm,  not  hot,  place  when 
they  will  readily  open  up  and  with  the  least  moving  or  beat- 
ing the  seeds  will  readily  thresh  out.  If  the  cones  become 
moist  or  wet  after  partially  opening  they  will  close  up  again 
and  will  have  to  be  dried  again  before  opening. 

When  evergreen  seeds  are  gathered  in  large  quantities,  cool 
ovens  or  buildings  with  specially  constructed  slat  trays  are  pro- 
vided which  materially  simplifies  seed  saving. 

Planting  of  Seeds.  When  the  soil  is  in  good  condition,  neith- 
er too  wet  nor  too  dry,  fall  planting  is  preferable,  providing 
they  are  mulched  with  leaves,  straw,  or  coarse  litter  to  prevent 
heaving  out,  washing  out,  or  drying  out  during  the  winter. 
However,  it  is  the  safer  plan  to  prepare  the  land  in  the  fall  and 
plant  as  early  as  possible  in  the  spring.  This  planting  must  be 
done  before  the  seeds  have  started  to  germinate  or  many  will 
be  lost  during  planting. 

The  seed  bed  should  be  thoroughly  prepared  before  plant- 
ing, as  this  will  save  lots  of  hard  labor  later  in  the  year.  The 
seeds  of  deciduous  trees  should  be  planted  in  band  rows  six 
inches  wide,  two  inches  deep  in  fall  and  from  one  to  one  and  a 
half  inches  deep  in  spring,  and  the  rows  from  three  to  four  feet 
apart.  By  using  this  method  a good  stand  of  trees  may  be  se- 
cured and  so  many  more  can  be  grown  per  acre  than  is  possi- 
ble in  the  narrow  row  system. 

The  soil  should  be  packed  firmly  around  the  seeds  to  pre- 
vent drying  out  during  or  after  germination.  The  deep  plant- 
ing is  necessary  in  dry  soils,  in  order  to  help  the  plant  develop 


10 


State  College  Experiment  Station 


roots  that  will  stand  the  dry  summers.  If  the  above  method  be 
followed  with  proper  tillage  one  will  have  no  difficulty  in  rais- 
ing first-class  seedlings. 

The  evergreens  require  an  entirely  different  treatment  than 
we  give  the  deciduous  trees.  The  seed-bed  should  be  divided 
into  plots  four  feet  wide  and  of  indefinite  length.  Two  or  more 
beds  may  be  established  side  by  side  with  four  foot  paths  be- 
tween them  to  permit  the  care  that  they  will  demand.  Some  pro- 
tection or  shade  will  be  necessary  for  at  least  two  years.  This 
may  be  six  feet  above  the  beds  and  cover  the  paths  as  well  as 
the  beds  or  less  than  two  feet  above  the  plants  and  cover  only 
the  plant  beds.  However,  the  tall  shade  is  best  since  it  per- 
mits a better  circulation  of  air.  This  screen  may  be  made  out 
of  laths,  strips,  or  even  primings  from  an  orchard.  Anything 
that  will  shut  off  about  one-half  of  the  light  and  heat  of  the 
sun  is  usable. 

One  should  not  attempt  to  grow  evergreens  from  seed  un- 
less he  can  provide  the  seed-bed  with  plenty  of  water  whenever 
it  is  necessary  and  is  willing  to  give  it  careful  attention  during 
the  first  two  or  three  months  after  planting.  These  little  trees 
are  very  subject  to  insect  pests  and  plant  diseases,  which  quick- 
ly destroy  thousands 

Mr.  C.  W.  Guerney  of  Yankton,  South  Dakota,  a pioneer 
nursery  man  of  the  plains  regions,  has  an  interesting  as  well  as 
successful  method  of  growing  evergreens  from  seed.  Since 
most  of  the  difficulty  in  growing  evergreens  from  seed  comes 
through  ‘'damp  off”  of  the  young  plants,  Mr.  Guerney  has  been 
and  is  experimenting  along  the  lines  of  growing  the  plants  in 
sterilized  flats  and  soil.  He  also  sterilizes  the  seeds  before 
planting  and  waters  them  afterwards  only  with  sterilized  water. 
In  this  way  he  has  practically  eliminated  loss  from  “damp  off” 
and  now  is  producing  better  trees  for  less  money  than  in  the 
past. 

Transplanting  of  Trees.  The  transplanting  of  a tree,  wheth- 
er it  be  small  or  large,  usually  checks  its  growth,  and  while 
this  check  is  not  always  detrimental,  yet  it  usually  reduces  the 
total  growth  for  the  succeeding  two  or  three  years. 


Bulletin  No.  90. — Forest,  Shade  and  Ornamental  Trees  11 


Fig.  4.  The  Proper  Way  to  Dig  a Large  Tree  for  Transplanting 


Fig.  5.  A Convenient  Method  for  Moving  Large  Trees 


12 


State  College  Experiment  Station 


This  general  check  is  caused  by  the  loss  of  roots  which  takes 
place  in  digging  the  tree.  It  matters  little  how  carefully  a 
tree  may  be  dug,  it  will  sutler  a severe  loss  of  roots  and  in  many 
case  from  one-half  to  three-fourths  of  its  entire  root  system, 
and  practically  all  of  its  feeding  roots  will  be  lost.  Another 
very  severe  check  is  caused  by  the  roots  becoming  dry  during 
transplanting.  This  not  only  kills  the  small  roots  and  hardens 
the  bark  of  the  larger  roots,  so  as  to  make  it  difficult  for  them 
to  form  new  rootlets,  but  in  the  case  of  the  evergreens  it 
hardens  the  sap  which  is  resinous,  and  thus  kills  the  tree.  It  is 
impossible  to  exercise  too  much  care  in  the  digging  and  trans- 
planting of  trees  in  dry  severe  climates. 

Deciduous  Trees.  This  group  if  trees  includes  practically 
all  trees  that  lose  their  leaves  at  the  approach  of  winter,  with 
the  exception  of  tamaracks  and  larches  which  are  grouped  with 
the  evergreens.  Common  examples  of  this  group  are : Maple, 
Ash,  Elm,  Birches,  Catalpa,  Poplar,  etc.  Although  deciduous 
trees  are  usually  transplanted  more  carelessly  than  evergreens, 
from  close  observation  one  readily  sees  that  extra  care  is  am- 
ply rewarded  by  better  and  more  satisfactory  growth. 

The  time  or  season  of  the  year  for  transplanting  deciduous 
trees  is  governed  by  the  development  of  the  tree,  the  condi- 
tion of  the  soil,  and  the  weather  that  is  apt  to  follow  trans- 
planting. Many  trees  may  be  successfully  transplanted  at  any 
time  during  their  dormant  or  leafless  period,  while  others  re- 
quire that  transplanting  be  done  at  certain  seasons  of  the  year. 
If  the  trees  are  fully  matured,  the  soil  moist,  not  wet,  and  the 
winters  are  not  too  severe,  one  may  feel  safe  in  fall  planting. 
If  the  soil  is  wet  and  poorly  prepared  and  the  trees  are  not  well 
ripened  off,  it  is  safer  to  plant  in  early  spring.  From  the  na- 
ture of  our  springs  in  Eastern  Washington  the  very  early  spring 
planting  fare  the  best,  while  the  late  planting  suffers  material- 
ly on  account  of  the  severe  drought  of  late  spring  and  early 
summer. 

Secure  your  trees  in  the  fall  or  during  the  winter,  and  when 
the  first  fine  days  of  spring  come,  even  though  they  be  in  Febru- 
ary or  March,  proceed  at  once  to  plant. 


Bulletin  No.  90. — Forest,  Shade  and  Ornamental  Trees  13 


One  of  the  principal  reasons  why  Eastern  nursery  stock 
does  not  do  as  well  as  home  grown  stock  is  due  to  the  fact  that 
some  of /these  nurseries  make  no  shipments  before  the  twenti- 
eth of  March  and  since  it  takes  almost  or  quite  a month  for  a 
shipment  to  cross  the  continent,  they  frequently  do  not  reach 
here  in  time  to  receive  the  benefit  of  the  best  part  of  the  season. 

Deciduous  trees  should  be  planted  from  one  to  two  inches 
deeper  than  they  grew  in  the  nursery.  Thoroughly  pulverized 
moist  earth  should  be  worked  in  among  the  roots,  until  the  hole 
is  about  half  full,  and  then  this  earth  should  be  tamped  or 
tramped  until  it  is  solid.  The  tramping  of  the  earth  around  the 
roots  of  the  tree  is  one  of  the  most  important  features  of  trans- 
planting a tree.  It  serves  a dual  purpose;  first,  by  holding  the 
tree  firm  while  new  roots  are  being  formed,  and  second,  in  re- 
taining moisture,  which  is  so  essential  to  its  growth. 

Water  may  be  applied  to  the  hole  either  the  day  before  the 
tr«‘es  are  planted  or  after  the  hole  is  half  full  of  earth,  but  if 
the  soil  is  moist  it  is  usually  best  not  to  use  any  water.  The 
upper  half  of  the  soil  that  is  filled  into  the  hole  may  be  left 
loose  or  only  lightly  tramped,  and  the  surface  left  loose  and 
finely  pulverized.  This  will  serve  as  a mulch  or  protection  as 
w-11  as  take  up  any  water  that  may  fall  on  the  surface. 

Evergreens.  The  transplanting  of  evergreen  trees  is  always 
accompanied  by  more  or  less  risk  of  losing  a small  percentage 
under  favorable  conditions  to  a large  percentage  or  even  total 
loss  under  unfavorable  conditions.  They  are  much  more  difficult 
to  transplant  successfully  than  deciduous  trees,  but  if  the  prop- 
er time  to  be  selected,  the  trees  be  properly  handled  during  the 
time  they  are  out  of  the  ground,  the  manner  of  planting  be  not 
too  faulty,  and  the  care  they  receive  after  transplanting  be  at 
least  reasonable,  one  may  usually  expect  success. 

If  the  proper  care  be  exercised,  an  evergreen  tree  may  be 
transplanted  any  month  during  the  year,  but  there  are  times 
when  it  is  easier  to  attain  success  than  at  other  seasons. 

Probably  the  most  favorable  time  for  transplanting  ever- 
greens is  in  spring  either  just  before  or  just  after  they  have 
started  into  growth.  Trees  transplanted  at  this  season  of  the 


14  State  College  Experiment  Station 

year  start  into  growth  at  once  and  in  many  cases  they  do  not 
receive  a perceptible  cheek.  Last  spring  at  one  time  three  hun- 
dred evergreens,  consisting  of  Douglas  Fir,  White  Fir,  Engle- 
man’s  Spruce,  and  Jack  Pine  varying  from  six  inches  to  sev- 
eral feet  in  height  were  dug  in  the  mountains  north  of  Pullman 
and  transplanted  to  the  campus  and  various  home  lots,  just  as 
the  buds  were  expanding.  These  trees  were  each  dug  with  a 
small  ball  of  earth  clinging  to  their  roots,  and  then  carefully 
bound  up  in  a piece  of  burlap.  They  were  carefully  planted 
and  received  on  an  average  only  reasonable  care  during  the 
hot,  dry  summer.  At  the  present  time  over  ninety-eight  per 
cent  of  these  trees  are  alive  and  doing  well.  And  so  we  feel 
safe  in  recommending  this  season  of  the  year  as  a very  favor- 
able time  to  transplant  evergreen  trees. 

Early  in  the  summer  or  just  as  soon  as  the  young  growth 
has  hardened  is  another  favorable  time  to  transplant  ever- 
greens. A tree  set  at  this  season  of  the  year  makes  no  top 
growth  until  the  following  spring,  but  the  cut  roots  fully  cal- 
lous over,  and  numerous  small  roots  are  usually  thrown  out  pre- 
paratory to  the  spring  growth.  The  trees  will  become  estab- 
lished before  winter  and  other  things  being  equal,  will  be  bet- 
ter prepared  for  spring  growth  than  one  set  the  following 
spring.  In  a dry  hot  climate  the  roots  and  soil  should  be 
thoroughly  soaked  at  planting  time  and  a good  mulch  of  coarse 
straw  or  litter  will  be  very  beneficial  during  the  hot,  dry  sea- 
son that  is  almost  sure  to  follow.  Last  August  we  transplanted 
fifty  small  evergreens  and  gave  them  the  above  treatment.  At 
the  present  time  there  are  forty-six  alive  and  in  good  growing 
condition.  While  we  are  not  so  successful  as  in  spring  yet 
considering  the  dry  weather  that  followed  the  planting  we  have 
no  cause  for  complaint. 

Evergreens  may  be  successfully  transplanted  during  the 
winter  months,  provided  a ball  of  earth,  preferably  frozen,  be 
taken  intact  with  the  roots  of  each  tree.  This  ball  of  earth 
must  be  permitted  to  thaw  out  while  it  is  exposed  to  the  air, 
or  the  tree  is  apt  to  die.  This  method  is  employed  in  the  trans- 
planting of  large  trees  that  are  to  be  moved  a comparatively 


Bulletin  No.  90. — Forest,  Shade  and  Ornamental  Trees  15 


short  distance.  Various  means  are  used  to  secure  this  ball  of 
earth  intact.  Probably  the  more  common  way  is  to  dig  a nar- 
row trench  around  the  tree  before  the  ground  freezes  and  fill 
with  straw  or  litter  until  the  ground  freezes.  It  is  then  a com- 
paratively easy  task  to  load  the  ball  of  earth  upon  a low  wagon, 
or  stone  boat  and  move  it  to  another  hole  which  has  been  pre- 
viously prepared  for  the  tree.  Loose  earth  must  then  befirmly 
packed  around  the  tree  to  shut  out  all  air  from  the  roots.  In 
localities  where  the  soil  does  not  freeze  deep  enough  to  permit 
handling  in  the  above  manner,  a suitable  box  crate  may  be  con- 
structed which  will  hold  the  soil  intact  during  the  transplant- 
ing. This  method  is  a little  more  expensive,  but  may  be  suc- 
cessfully used  for  handling  large  trees  in  the  winter  time. 

Fall  planting  has  been  successfully  used  in  many  localities, 
and  where  all  conditions  are  favorable  it  is  a safe  venture,  but 
if  the  soil  is  dry  we  favor  the  spring  or  summer  seasons  for 
moving  evergreens. 

A great  many  evergreens  are  transplanted  every  year  very 
early  in  the  spring;  but  this  seems  to  be  a very  unfavorable 
season  of  the  year  to  disturb  them,  since  the  roots  are  apt  to 
become  frosted  or  dried  out  before  they  can  be  planted,  conse- 
quently a large  percentage  of  the  trees  transplanted  at  this 
season  die  outright  or  live  only  to  make  weak  poor  trees.  Early 
in  the  spring  of  1906  we  attempted  to  transplant  a few  spruce, 
fir,  and  pine,  by  digging  them  with  a ball  of  earth  and  tying 
each  up  in  burlap,  during  the  period  of  transplanting.  A cold 
snap  came  on  and  many  balls  were  frozen  solid.  As  a result 
95  per  cent  died. 

From  our  experience  with  evergreens  we  favor  either  late 
spring  (and  by  this  we  mean  the  few  days  preceding  the  time 
the  tree  starts  into  growth  and  the  first  week  of  its  growing 
period)  or  the  period  at  the  close  of  its  growth.  This  latter 
period  is  usually  during  the  last  half  of  July  or  early  in  August. 
In  the  former  period  the  sap  is  just  beginning  to  move  so  the 
tree  continues  to  grow  and  in  many  cases  receives  no  per- 
ceptible check,  while  in  the  latter  the  sap  has  practically  ceased 


16 


State  College  Experiment  Station 


to  move  and  so  the  tree  has  almost  a year  to  establish  itself 
in  its  new  place. 

No  evergreen  however  small  can  be  dug  and  transplanted 
without  at  least  some  injury  to  the  roots.  Since  the  roots  of 
the  most  of  them  and  especially  of  pines  are  very  tender  and 
soft,  it  not  infrequently  happens  that  the  bark  will  be  peeled 
off  in  many  places,  and  since  the  sap  beneath  the  bark  is  ex- 
tremely resinous  and  the  least  exposure  to  sun  or  wind  causes 
it  to  harden,  too  much  care  cannot  be  exercised  in  order  to 
avoid  this  difficulty,  for  if  the  sap  once  becomes  hard  the  tree 
is  sure  to  die. 

Large  deep  holes  with  plenty  of  loose  moist  soil  in  the  bot- 
tom should  be  provided  for  any  tree  but  especially  is  this  true 
of  an  evergreen.  During  transplanting  the  roots  must  never 
become  dry  either  by  the  wind  or  from  the  sun.  This  is  best 
avoided,  if  one  is  compelled  to  transplant  evergreens  during 
a bright,  sunshiny  day,  or  even  in  the  wind  by  puddling  which 
consists  of  dipping  the  tree  roots  in  a tub  or  barrel  of  liquid 
clay.  While  the  trees  are  not  so  nice  to  handle  after  this  treat- 
ment, it  serves  its  purpose  well,  not  only  as  a protection  against 
the  sun  and  wind  but  also  against  dry  coarse  lumps  of  soil  from 
coming  in  contact  with  the  tender  roots.  Another  very  im- 
portant phase  in  the  transplanting  of  a tree,  and  especially  is 
this  is  true  of  the  evergreen,  is  to  make  the  soil  very,  very  firm 
around  its  roots.  If  the  soil  is  well  prepared  and  in  proper  con- 
dition it  will  be  almost  impossible  to  make  it  too  firm.  This 
packing  of  the  soil  may  be  done  in  one  or  two  ways : either  by 
the  planter  tramping  it  with  his  feet  or  by  using  a two  by  four, 
or  even  a four  by  four  tamper.  Care  must  be  exercised,  how- 
ever, not  to  injure  the  tender  roots.  This  may  be  avoided  by 
working  loose  moist  soil  in  among  the  roots  until  they  are  all 
well  covered  and  the  hole  half  or  two-thirds  full  and  then  it 
should  be  packed.  More  newly  transplanted  evergreens  die  on 
account  of  the  planter  failing  to  make  the  soil  firm  about  the 
roots,  than  from  any  other  single  cause.  This  is  the  only  safe 
way  to  exclude  the  air  from  the  roots,  and  unless  this  is  done 
failure  is  sure  to  follow. 


Bulletin  No.  90. — Forest,  Shade  and  Ornamental  Trees  17 


The  soil  near  the  surface  should  be  left  loose  so  as  to  act  as 
a mulch  and  a medium  to  take  up  water  during  light  rains. 

If  it  is  deemed  necessary  to  water  the  trees  during  the  dry 
part  of  the  summer,  apply  it  only  in  large  quantities,  and  be 
sure  the  soil  is  thoroughly  soaked  before  you  quit.  A light 
watering  or  even  frequent  light  waterings  are  aljvays  more  in- 
jurious than  beneficial,  if  the  soil  is  permitted  to  crust  or  bake 
between  waterings. 

When  clean  culture  is  not  possible,  as  is  frequently  the  case 
on  lawns  in  parks,  and  with  street  trees,  it  is  best  to  apply  a 
good  heavy  mulch  of  coarse  litter,  rotten  straw,  or  even  forest 
leaves,  and  apply  the  water  to  this  rather  than  to  the  bare 
ground.  It  has  been  our  experience  that  one  or  two  good  water- 
ings during  the  summer  when  applied  to  the  mulch  is  far  bet- 
ter than  keeping  the  surface  soil  wet  without  mulch.  The 
mulch  not  only  retains  the  moisture,  but  also  keeps  the  soil 
cool,  adds  plant  food,  and  aids  in  the  pulverizing  of  the  soil.  It 
must  not  wholly  take  the  place  of  culture,  since  the  tree  will  be 
materially  benefited  by  occasionally  raking  off  the  mulch  and 
thoroughly  working  up  the  soil  and  then  recovering  with  the 
same  mulch. 

Wind  Breaks  and  Shelter  Belts.  The  question  of  wind 
breaks  and  shelter  belts  is  one  that  has  been  discussed  in  all 
new  countries  since  men  learned  to  plant  and  care  for  trees 
and  wrhile  under  certain  conditions  a wind  break  may  become 
injurious  to  an  orchard,  it  has  never  been  known,  where  prop- 
erly constructed,  to  be  detrimental  to  the  farm  home  and  its 
surroundings.  Entirely  too  many  of  our  Eastern  Washing- 
ton farms  are  devoid  of  trees  of  any  kind.  This  is  surely  a de- 
plorable condition  and  one  that  should  not  be  permitted  to 
exist  longer  than  is  really  necessary. 

There  is  no  phase  of  work  that  could  improve  our  country 
more  than  liberal  plantations  of  all  kinds  of  trees  around  the 
farm  buildings  and  in  many  cases  along  the  public  highways. 
I would  not  plant  hedges  along  the  road,  as  valuable  as  they 
might  be ; nor  would  I plant  fruit  trees,  since  these  trees  are 
apt  to  become  the  breeding  grounds  of  injurious  insects.  We 


18 


State  College  Experiment  Station 


have  a large  list  of  trees  that  one  can  select  from  for  roadside 
planting  that  will  harbor  no  insects,  or  plant  diseases,  that  are 
apt  to  become  injurious  to  either  horticultural  or  agricultural 
crops. 

If  the  planter  desires  a deciduous  wind  break  and  yet  can 
spare  room  for  only  one  row  of  trees,  it  will  be  best  to  plant 
closely  Black  Locusts,  Lombardy  Poplars,  White  Willows, 
Box  Elder,  Balm,  or  even  Carolina  Poplars.  While  if  he  wishes 
to  make  a wind-break  of  a single  row  of  evergreens,  it  will  be 
best  to  plant  Bull  Pine,  Scotch  Pine,  White  Spruce,  Engle- 
man’s  Spruce,  Norway  Spruce  or  even  Douglas  Fir.  Any  of 
these  trees  properly  planted  and  cared  for  will  soon  make  an 
effective  as  well  as  an  attractive  wind-break. 

If  it  is  possible  to  devote  more  land  to  the  growing  of  the 
wind-break,  a much  more  effective  and  useful  one  can  be  grown 
by  planting  several  rows  of  evergreens  and  deciduous  trees  to- 
gether. Two  general  plans  are  in  use  at  present;  one  consists 
in  planting  the  tall  growing  evergreens  in  the  middle  of  the  band 
and  filling  in  on  each  side  with  slower  growing  evergreens  and 
deciduous  trees,  finally  planting  a row  of  low,  dense  shrubs 
on  each  side  to  act  as  a check  to  snow  and  the 
wind  that  would  go  under  the  crowns  of  the  tree.  The  other 
consists  in  planting  the  tall  dense  evergreens  on  the  inside  with 
deciduous  trees  and  other  evergreens  on  the  outside;  finally, 
having  one  row  of  low  dense  shrubs  on  the  extreme  outside  to 
act  as  a snow  or  low  wind-break.  The  former  plan  is  usually 
more  satisfactory  although  the  latter  has  many  ardent  admirers. 

Aside  from  the  material  benefits  in  posts  and  fuel  that  one 
could  secure  from  these  shelter  belts  and  roadside  plantings, 
there  are  unmeasured  pleasures  and  comforts  to  be  gained  from 
thm,  not  only  to  the  farmer  and  his  family  but  also  to  his  stock. 
Man  and  beast  instinctively  seek  shelter  of  the  trees  from  the 
hot  sun  of  summer  and  the  cold  blasts  of  winter,  and  so  why  not 
provide  these  comforts. 

At  the  present  time  several  counties  are  attempting  to  in- 
troduce foreign  birds  of  economic  importance.  This  is  a royal 
move  and  while  our  orchards,  vineyards  and  berry  fields  af- 


Bulletin  No.  90.— Forest,  Shade  and  Ornamental  Trees  19 


Fig.  6.  Winter  Injury.  Oregon  Ash  ( on  the  right ) killed ; Flowering  Ash 
( on  the  left ) uninjured 


Fig.  7.  A Group  of  American  Mountain  Ash 


20 


State  College  Experiment  Station 


ford,  good  nesting  places,  they  afford  poor  winter 
protection,  since  our  improved  methods  of  culture  demand  that 
weeds  be  kept  out,  and  our  system  of  growing  first-class  fruit 
necessitates  severe  pruning  which  might  otherwise  afford  pro- 
tection to  these  birds. 

The  area  of  land  to  be  devoted  to  a wind-break  will  in  a 
measure  govern  the  kind  of  trees  to  use  and  the  method  of 
planting. 

When  it  is  possible  the  wind-break  may  become  the  woodlot 
of  the  farm  which  not  only  economizes  but  also  insures  a larger 
and  better  shelter  belt  for  the  farm  buildings. 

The  Wood  Lot.  A wood  lot  is  a plantation  of  trees  whether 
natural  or  artificial,  for  growing  wood  for  fuel,  fence  posts, 
poles,  stakes,  etc.  It  is  to  the  farm  wThat  the  work-basket  is  to 
the  house-wife,  and  while  it  is  frequently  given  the  poorest  soil 
of  the  farm,  which  usually  consists  of  a washed  hillside,  a rocky 
corner,  or  even  a semi-marshy  field,  yet,  in  time,  if  proper  trees 
be  planted,  much  valuable  material  may  be  taken  from  it. 

The  purpose  of  the  wood-lot  is  not  to  grow  timber,  since  this 
would  require  too  long  a period,  but  rather  to  grow  the  more 
rapid  growing  sorts,  which  will  begin  to  produce  material,  fuel, 
and  fence  post  size  in  from  five  to  seven  years  from  planting. 
Much,  of  course,  will  depend  upon  the  nature  of  the  soil,  the 
amount  of  rainfall,  but  more  especially  upon  the  kind  of  trees 
used. 

If  the  land  is  low,  very  moist,  or  even  wet,  the  cottonwood, 
willow  and  European  Larch  will  probably  be  the  best  kinds  to 
use,  since  under  these  conditions,  they  are  very  rapid  growers, 
as  the  growth  table  will  show  and  while  the  wood  of  these  trees 
is  not  of  a high  fuel  value,  yet  if  it  is  properly  cured  after  cut- 
ting it  will  be  as  good  or  better  than  much  of  the  fir  and  pine 
wood  that  is  found  on  our  markets  at  the  present  time.  On  fair- 
ly moist  soil,  it  would  be  better  to  plant  a few  of  these  rapid 
growing  trees  to  act  as  fillers,  which  are  to  be  removed  as  soon 
as  they  begin  to  crowd  the  permanent  ones,  but  make  the  major 
portion  of  the  plantation  of  Sycamore  Maple  and  White  Maple, 
Green  and  Flowering  Ash,  Black  Locust,  Austrian  Pine,  Doug- 


Bulletin  No.  90. — Forest,  Shade  and  Ornamental  Trees  21 


las  Fir,  Black  Walnut,  and  European  Larch.  These  trees  have 
all  made  splendid  growth  in  our  plantations.  We  are  of  the 
opinion  that  at  the  present  price  of  fuel  every  farmer  who  does 
not  have  native  timber  upon  his  place  could  well  afford,  from  a 
financial  basis,  to  plant  from  five  to  ten  acres  of  trees  for  wood- 
lot  purposes. 

Pruning.  Shade  trees  should  receive  practically  the  same 
regular  pruning  that  fruit  trees  do,  except  that  since  they  are  to 
produce  wood  and  foliage,  all  priming  should  be  done  during 
the  Winter  in  order  to  encourage  wood  growth.  The  framework 
must  be  developed  from  carefully  selected  limbs  with  wide  an- 
gles and  strong  crotches.  A strong  central  shaft  should  be  pre- 
served in  the  young  tree  in  order  that  the*  top  may  be  raised 
as  it  grows  older.  A small  amount  of  thinning  should  be  done 
but  not  carried  to  excess.  Prune  back  each  winter  to  live  buds 
and  branches,  never  leaving  stubs  or  spurs.  If  the  tree  be- 
comes top  heavy,  cut  back  in  the  summer  time ; otherwise  do 
not. 

Evergreen  trees  require  little  or  no  pruning.  When  it  is  de- 
sirable to  thicken  the  top,  cut  back  to  buds  or  branches,  never 
disturbing  the  terminal  bud.  Evergreen  hedges  may  be  sheared 
the  same  as  other  hedges. 


PART  II 


Notes  on  Growth  of  Trees 


Bulletin  No.  12,  of  this  Station  gave  in  detail  lists  of  trees 
planted  on  the  College  and  Station  grounds  in  1892-1894,  with 
notes  on  the  first  two  seasons’  growth  of  most  of  them.  Fol- 
lowing the  resignation  from  the  Experiment  Station  staff  of 
Prof.  J.  A.  Balmer,  the  original  planter  of  these  trees  and  au- 
thor of  the  Bulletin,  no  particular  attention  was  given  to  the 
plantation  for  a few  years,  except  the  necessary  cultivation  of 
the  soil  in  certain  parts  of  it.  Beginning  with  1900,  however, 
regular  measurements  of  the  annual  growth,  notes  on  hardi- 
ness, etc.,  were  taken.  The  facts  thus  gathered  are  presented 
in  the  following  pages. 

Rapidity  of  Growth 

The  following  table  of  measurements  reveals  some  very  in- 
teresting facts  relative  to  the  rapidity  of  growth  of  some  of  our 
more  common  trees.  These  data  have  been  secured  by  the  mea- 
suring of  a number  of  trees  and  averages  found  from  these  fig- 
ures. The  trunk  diameters  were  secured  much  in  the  same  way 
using  one  foot  from  the  ground  as  a standard  of  height  for  all 
measurements  to  be  taken.  Interesting  comparisons  can  be 
made  between  the  total  height  and  the  trunk  diameters  of  many 
of  the  trees.  An  interesting  fact  is  seen  in  the  case  of  the  two 
Larches.  The  European  Larch  while  of  the  same  age  as  the 
American  is  almost  twice  as  large  and  has  from  two  and  one- 
half  to  three  times  as  much  wood  in  it.  Thus  showing  its  value 
as  a fuel  producing  tree.  The  European  Larchs  compare  very 


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Scientific  Nan 


Common  Name 


Acer  Campestris 
Acer  Circinatum 
Acer  Macrophyllum 
Acer  Platanoides 
Acer  Pseudo-platanus 
Acer  Rubrum 
Acer  Saccharinum 
Acer  S.  Wierii 
Acer  Saccharum 
Acer  Negundo 
Aesculus  Glabra 
Aesculus  Hippocastanum 
Alnus  rubra 

planchier  Alnifolia 
Betula  Alba 
Betula  A.  pendula 
Betula  lutea 
Catalpa  bignonoides 
Catalpa  ovata 
Catalpa  speciosa 
Castenea  Americana 
Castanea  crenata 
Carpinus  Caroliniana 
Celtis  Occidentalis 
Fraxinus  Americana 
Fraxinus  Lanceolata 
Fraxinus  Orogona 
Fraxinus  Ornus 
Gvmnocladus  Canadensis 
Juglans  cinera 
.Tuglans  nigra 
Morus  alba 
Platanus  occidentalis 
Populus  alba 

Populus'balsamifera  candi 
cans 

Populus  Deltoides 
Populus  Nigra  Italica 
Populus  tremuloides 
Prunus  serotina 
Trunus  suinosa 
Prunus  Virginiana 
Quercus  alba 
Quercus  coccinea 
Quercus  Prinus 
Quercus  sessiliflora 
Robinia  pseudacacia 
Salix  blanda 
Salix  Vittellina 
Snrbus  Americana 
Sarbus  aucuparia 
Snrt'us  sambueifolia 
— "Cilia  vulgaris 


English  Maple 

Vine  Maple 

Oregon  Maple 

Norway  Maple 

Sycamore  Maple 

Red  Maple 

White  Maple 

Cut-leaved  Maple 

Sugar  Maple 

Box  Elder 

Buckeye 

Horse  Chestnut 

Red  Alder 

June-berry 

White  Birch 

Weeping  White  Birch 

Yellow  Birch 

Catalpa 

Kaempfer’s  Catalpa 
Hardy  Catalpa 
American  Chestnut 
Japanese  Chestnut 
American  Hornbeam 
Hackberry 
White  Ash 
Green  Ash 
Oregon  Ash 
Flowering  Ash 
Kentucky  Coffee  Tree 
Butternut 
Black  Walnut 
White  Mulberry 
American  Plane 
Silver  Poplar 

Balm  of  Gilead 
Cottonwood 
Lombardy 
American  Aspen 
Wild  Black  Cherry 
Blackthorn 
Chokecherry 
White  Oak 
Scarlet  Oak 
Chestnut  Oak 
English  Oak 
Black  Locust 
White  Willow 
| Golden  Willow 
(American  Mountain  Ash 
| European  Mountain  Ash 
! Elder-leaved  Mountain  A: 
lEuronea.n  Linden 


O 


I 

01 

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21 

31 

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13 

22 

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15 

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23 

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Cultivat’d 

15 

20 

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Cultivat’d 

15 

23 

22 

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Cultivat’d 

15 

23 

23% 

7% 

[Cultivat’d 

15 

271/2 

32 

10  % Cultivat’d 

15 

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131/,  | 

3 

|Grass 

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1 241/2  I 

17% 

I 6 % 

[Cultivat’d 

15 

1 26  | 

24 

1 5 

Cultivat’d 

15 

19  | 

5 

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15 

23 

28 

| 8% 

[Cultivat’d 

13 

26  1 

32 

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Grass 

15 

19  | 

27 

7 

Grass 

15 

43 

50% 

14 

Grass 

15 

30%  | 

36% 

7% 

Grass 

1 3 

191/2  | 

361/, 

7% 

0 rass 

15 

| 1 8 

1 21 

i 7 

Cultivat’d 

1 5 

1 16 

| 16% 

| 4% 

Grass 

15 

| 22 

1 1914 

5 

[Cultivat’d 

1 5 

1 16 

I 3 

[Grass 

1 5 

| 22 

1 15 

3 

1 Grass 

1 5 

1 21 

I 21% 

1 5 

1 Cultivat’d 

. 1 5 

! 151/2 

j 36 

10  % (Cultivat'd 

15 

I 24 

1 9 

|Grass 

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36 

45 

13 

Grass 

1 4 

| 38 

29 

| 91/, 

[Grass 

1 5 

1 1 6 

1 I6 

| 4% 

[Cultivat’d 

1 5 

1 13 

14% 

7 

Cultivat’d 

I 15 

11 

14% 

7 

Cultivat’d 

h l 15 

11 

13% 

5% 

(Cultivat’d 

15 

1 2 1 

19 

9 Vi 

ICultivat’  1 

15 

1 21 

22 

7 Vi 

[Cultivat’d 

1 5 

1 15 

25 

7% 

(Cultivat’d 

1 5 

1 32 

28 

7% 

[Grass 

15 

! 12 

21 

7 Vi 

Grass 

15 

1 I2 

8% 

* 

[Grass 

15 

14 

101/, 

[Grass 

15 

I 32 

21 

7 Vi 

| Grass 

1 15 

| 37 

35 

14 

[Grass 

1 15 

1 81/2 

7% 

3 Vi 

[Grass 

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1 21 

21 

5 

prnss 

1 15 

| 30 y2 

25 

6% 

| Grass 

1 15 

8 

6% 

4 ¥4 

|Grass 

1 15 

1 18 

14 

5 

j Grass 

| 15 

1 36 

28 

9% 

I Grass 

1 15 

| 191/2 

15% 

6 

[Grass 

i 15 

1 17 

17 

1 Grass 

1 15 

1 16% 

18% 

5% 

IGrass 

1 15 

1 I6 

18 

7 Vi 

| Grass 

1 15 

| 27 

24 

10 

I Grass 

1 15 

1 29% 

| 30 

8 ¥2 

|Grass 

1 15 

1 9 

1 12 

1 3 ¥4 

jGrass 

1 1 5 

1 15 

1 3 

IGrass 

1 15 

1 

I 1 ¥4 

1 2 

IGrass 

1 15 

| 12 

I 13% 

1 3 

IGrass 

American  Elm 
I Scotch  Elm 
I Western  White  Fir 
| Balsam  Fir 


Ulmus  Americana 
Ulmus  Scabra 
AhiPS  Grandis 
Abies  balsamea 
Juniperus  Virginiana 
Juniperus  communis 
Larix  Americana 
T.nrix  Furopea 
Picea  Alba 
Picea  Engelmanni 
r>icea  Excelsa 
Picea  Nigra 
Picea  pungens 
Pinus  Alba 
Pinus  Parriccta 
Pinus  Montana 
Pinus.  Ponderosa 
Pinus  Sylvestris 
Pinus  Lauricio 
Pseudotsuga  Douglasii 
Thuya  occidentalis 
Thuya  Gigantea 
TUyya  occidentalis,  var 
Thuya  occidentalis,  var 
Chamaecyparis  sphaeroidea  |White  Cedar 


Red  Cedar 
jlrish  Juniper 
| American  Larch 
! European  Larch 
| White  Spruce 
(Hngelman’s  Spruce 
[Norway  Spruce 
Black  Spruce 
Colorado  Blue  Spruce 
(White  Pine 
Western  Jack  Pine 
|Dwarf  Mountain  Pine 
[Bull  Pine 
'Scotch  Pine 
I Austrian  Pine 
I Douglas  Fir 
| Arborvitae 
Giant  Cedar 
| Dwarf  arborvitae 
I Blue  arborvitae 


Bulletin  No.  90. — Forest,  Shade  and  Ornamental  Trees  23 


>rably  with  any  tree  of  the  same  age  even  the  Cottonwood 
Lombardy  Poplar  group.  Some  of  these  trees  are  growing 
n*ass  while  others  are  in  cultivated  lands. 

TREES 

The  following  facts  concerning  the  habits  of  growth  of  the 
'erent  species  of  trees  as  described  were  collected  largely 
jm  the  experimental  tree  planting  on  the  College  campus  and 
periment  Station,  with  additional  notes  from  plantings  in 
ferent  parts  of  the  state. 

ACER  Campestre,  Linn.  English  Maple.  Native  of  Europe  and 
stern  Asia.  A medium  to  rapid  growing,  round  topped  tree  with 
mpact  head,  numerous  small  branches  and  an  abundance 
very  pretty,  small,  dark,  green  leaves.  It  starts  into 
wth  early  in  spring,  holds  its  leaves  rather  late  in  the  fall,  and 
en  full  of  ripening  seeds  is  very  attractive.  As  a small  street  or 
ade  tree  it  has  few  superiors,  standing  drouth  and  dust  as  well  as 
nty  of  moisture.  It  is  easy  to  transplant  and  propagate  and  should 
extensively  used  in  all  ornamental  planting. 

A.  Circinatum,  Pursh.  Vine  Maple.  Native  of  Western 
ited  States.  This  is  a small  tree  or  large  bush  as  grown  on  the 
npus.  It  throws  up  several  slender  trunks  from  one  root,  none  of 
ich  ever  become  very  large.  The  limbs  are  usually  more  or  less 
.ndulous  in  habit,  which  gives  it  the  name  of  Vine  Maple.  The 
iage  is  dense  and  pretty,  taking  on  beautiful  autumm  tints  in  the 
1.  It  can  be  used  very  effectively  in  banking  and  small  clumps, 
jecially  in  moist  soils  where  it  grows  best.  The  Vine  Maple  is  per- 
tly hardy  anywhere  in  the  state  and  readily  stands  transplanting. 

A.  Macrophyllum,  Pursh.  The  Oregon  or  Large-leaved 
pie.  Native  of  parts  of  California,  Oregon,  Washington  and  Brit- 
Columbia.  Several  trees  of  this  species  are  growing  on  the 
npus  and  while  it  is  not  hardy  enough  at  first  to  produce  a single 
mmed  tree,  it  may  become  more  or  less  acclimated  in  time  so  that 
can  remove  all  but  one  stem  of  these  bush-like  trees  and  by  this 
ans  obtain  a nice  tree.  The  limbs  are  coarse  and  heavy.  The 
ves  are  large  and  very  ornamental.  The  Oregon  Maple  may  be 
I very  effectively  as  a screen  for  the  back  of  the  yard  or  as  a wind- 
ak.  In  the  Western  part  of  the  state  it  is  the  principal  street 
;e  and  it  serves  the  purpose  well,  since  it  is  a clean  rapid  growing, 
use  shade-producing  tree. 

A.  Negundo,  Linn.  Box  Elder,  Ash  Leaf  Maple.  Some  form 
the  Box  Elder  is  a native  of  practically  all  paries,  of  the  United 


24 


State  College  Experiment  Station 


States.  The  Box  Elder  is  a very  pretty  round  topped  maple-like  tree 
and  is  occasionally  called  the  pioneer  of  shade  trees,  since  we  find 
it  being  planted  usually  before  any  other  form  of  shade  trees.  It 
is  a valuable  shade  and  street  tree  for  severe  situations,  but  we  find 
it  serving  its  best  purposes  when  planted  along  public  roads  or  be- 
ing used  for  a wind-break.  The  rapidity  of  its  growth,  denseness  of 
its  foliage,  the  value  of  its  wood  for  fuel  and  the  ease  with  which 
it  can  be  transplanted  all  add  to  its  usefulness  for  the  farm  or  city 
home.  Old  specimens  become  irregular  or  unsightly  sometimes,  but 
they  can  usually  be  rejuvinated  by  severe  pruning  and  proper  care. 

A.  Platanoides,  Linn.  Norway  Maple.  Native  of  Northern 
and  central  Europe  and  Asia.  Many  good  specimens  of  this  tree  are 
growing  on  the  campus.  It  is  one  of  our  best  shade  and  street  trees, 
forming  a dense  round  top  with  very  pretty  foliage  and  strong  limbs 
that  are  not  easily  injured  in  wind  storms.  It  comes  into  leaf  early 
in  spring  and  drops  its  leaves  late  in  the  fall  after  taking  on  a rich 
yellow  or  bright  red  color.  This  tree  is  perfectly  hardy  anywhere  in 
the  state,  is  long  lived,  easily  transplanted  and  withstands  drouth  re- 
markably well.  Under  normal  conditions  it  is  a rapid  grower  and 
easily  propagated  from  seeds. 

A.  P.,  Schwedleri.  Koch.  Schwedler’s  Maple.  A horticultural 
variety  closely  resembling  the  species  but  having  foliage  that  is 
bright  red  when  young  and  purple  red  when  older.  Propagated  by 
budding  upon  the  Norway  Maple. 

A.  Pseudoplatanus,  Linn.  Sycamore  Maple.  Native  of  east- 
ern Europe.  There  are  several  good  specimens  of  this  tree  found 
growing  on  the  campus  where  it  has  proved  itself  to  be  a very  valu- 
able shade  and  street  tree  when  well  cared  for  and  severely  cut  back 
occasionally  in  order  to  develop  a dense  crown.  Naturally  the  top 
is  spreading,  irregular  and  open  in  habit,  but  severe  pruning  will 
correct  this  fault. 

The  limbs  are  long,  pole-like,  and,  although  the  crotches  are 
acute  angled  much  like  the  White  Maple,  it  rarely,  or  ever,  breaks  or 
splits  in  wind  storms  since  the  wood  is  very  tenaceous. 

The  tops  are  not  as  dense  as  the  Norway  Maple  but  the  leaves 
are  large,  three  to  five-lobed  and  very  showy  for  ornamental  plant- 
ing. It  is  perfectly  hardy  and  a rapid  grower. 

The  Sycamore  Maple,  when  undisturbed,  forms  a long,  heavy 
tap  root,  which  makes  the  transplanting  of  large  trees  very  difficult 
and  uncertain.  Small  trees  are  usually  easily  transplanted.  It  is 
readily  propagated  from  seeds.  The  Sycamore  Maple  is  being  sub- 
stituted for  the  Sugar  Maple  in  some  parts  of  the  state,  and  it  is 
said  to  produce  a large  quality  of  a fair  quality  of  maple  syrup  and 
sugar.  This  is  one  of  our  best  street  trees. 


Bulletin  No.  90. — Forest,  Shade  and  Ornamental  Trees  25 


A.  Rubrum,  Linn.  Red  Maple,  Scarlet  Maple  or  Swamp  Maple. 

Native  of  the  eastern  United  States  and  Canada.  Good  specimens 
of  this  tree  may  be  seen  on  the  campus  or  on  several  lawns  in  Pull- 
man. It  is  a beautiful  slender  tree  of  an  upright  habit  of  growth 
with  a rather  compact  dense  crown.  The  Red  Maple  resembles  the 
White  Maple  somewhat,  but  is  a much  slower  grower.  It  is  hardy 
anywhere  yi  the  state  and  withstands  drouth  as  well  as  an  excess  of 
water. 

It  is  epsecially  valuable  for  ornamental  planting,  since  its  red 
blossoms  come  out  very  early  in  spring,  and  in  fall  the  autumn  ef- 
fects of  its  foliage  are  not  surpassed  by  any  other  plant.  This  tree 
is  easily  transplanted,  but  usually  makes  a slow  growth  for  a few 
years  or  until  it  becomes  established.  It  is  readily  propagated  from 
seeds  if  sown  as  soon  as  they  are  ripe  in  June. 

A.  Saccliarinum,  Linn.  Silver  Maple.  Soft  or  White  Maple. 
Native  of  southeastern  Canada  and  eastern  half  of  the  United  States. 
A very  popular  as  well  as  satisfactory  shade  and  street  tree.  It  is 
a very  rapid  grower  and  does  extremely  well  in  a great  variety  of 
soils  and  climates.  In  very  dry  soils  the  limbs  are  apt  to  be  brittle 
and  frequently  split  or  break  in  wind  storms,  but  this  evil  may  be 
avoided  by  careful  pruning  and  cutting  back  the  lateral  limbs  which 
tends  to  strengthen  the  crotches.  The  foliage  is  dense,  light  and 
airy  and  always  gives  a graceful  appearance.  It  is  practically  free 
from  insect  pests  and  diseases.  The  Soft  Maple  is  a very  valuable 
tree  for  wind-breaks,  shelter-belts  and  wood-lot  plantations.  A 
small  plantation  of  White  Maple  properly  cared  for  would  in  a few 
years  soon  yield  the  owner  a lot  of  valuable  fire  wood,  or  even  lum- 
ber. This  is  easily  propagated  from  seeds  sown  as  soon  as  they  are 
ripe  in  June  or  July. 

A.  S.,  var.  Wierii  laciniatum.  Wier’s  Out-leaved  Maple.  This  is 
a horticultural  variety  of  the  common  White  Maple,  differing  from 
the  species  in  having  finely  cut  or  dissected  foliage  and  slender  beau- 
tifully drooping  branches.  • It  is  almost  as  hardy  as  the  type,  a very 
rapid  grower  and  ranks  among  the  most  attractive  of  lawn  trees. 
Good  specimens  have  been  seen  in  all  parts  of  the  state.  It  is  pro- 
pagated by  budding  or  grafting  the  cut  leaf  form  upon  the  common 
White  Maple. 

A.  Saccharum,  Marsh.  Sugar  Maple.  Hard  Maple.  Native 
of  southeastern  Canada  and  eastern  half  of  the  United  States.  The 
specimens  of  Hard  Maple  show  that  while  the  tree  is  perfectly  hardy, 
it  is  a rather  slow  grower  under  the  conditions  of  Eastern  Washing- 
ton. Naturally  the  tree  is  tall  and  slender  when  grown  with  other 
trees  but  spreading  when  alone.  It  does  not  take  favorably  to  dusty, 
smoky  situations,  so  is  not  valuable  in  large  cities,  and  from  the  na- 


26 


State  College  Experiment  Station 


ture  of  its  slow  growth  and  thin  foliage  when  young  is  not  a popular 
street  tree.  Its  foliage  is  very  pretty  any  time,  but  especially  so 
during  the  autumn  when  it  colors  up  beautifully.  The  Hard  Maple 
is  easily  transplanted  but  the  stem  should  be  protected  from  the  sun 
for  some  time  since  it  is  apt  to  become  “bound”  or  injured  by  scald. 
It  propagates  readily  from  seed  planted  as  soon  as  ripe  or  stratified 
in  sand  and  planted  early  in  spring. 

A.  Spicatum,  Mountain  Maple.  A small  round  topped  tree  to 
upright  bush  with  thin  foliage  and  slender  branches.  It  makes  a 
very  slow  growth  on  dry  stony  land  but  makes  a very  rapid  growth 
on  moist  rich  soil.  Valuable  only  as  a screen  or  low  shade  tree. 

AESCULUS  Glabra,  Willd.  Ohio  Buckeye.  Native  of  the  east- 
ern part  of  the  United  States.  A small  round  topped,  rather  open- 
crowned  tree,  seldom  growing  more  than  thirty  feet  high.  It  is  not 
so  pretty  in  foliage  flowers  or  shape  as  the  Horse  Chestnut,  yet  it 
is  much  prized  for  street,  shade  and  specimen  work  in  parks,  lawns, 
etc.  The  flowers  are  more  numerous  than  the  following  species,  but 
smaller  and  of  light  yellow  color.  In  moist  locations  in  eastern 
Washington,  it  is  a rapid  grower  and  soon  produces  a pretty  tree. 
It  is  easily  transplanted  when  small  and  readily  propagated  from 
seeds. 

A.  Hippocastanum,  Linn.  Horse-chestnut.  Native  of  south- 
ern Europe.  A medium-sized  to  tall,  round  topped  dense  foliaged 
tree,  having  a very  compact  crown  which  causes  it  to  be  used  exten- 
sively where  a dense  shade  is  desirable.  It  leaves  out  reasonably  early 
in  spring  and  is  soon  a mass  of  large  beautiful  spikes  of  white  flow- 
ers. The  wood  of  this  tree  has  very  little  value  commercially  since 
it  is  soft  and  not  durable.  The  Horse-chestnut  is  usually  a slow 
grower  during  its  first  three  or  four  years,  but  after  it  becomes  es- 
tablished, in  favorable  soil  it  is  a rapid  grower,  and  makes  splendid 
specimens  for  lawn  shade  or  street  planting.  It  is  easily  transplant- 
ed when  young,  and  readily  propagated  either  by  planting  the  nuts 
as  soon  as  ripe  or  stratifying  them  in  sand  and  planting  the  follow- 
ing spring. 

A.  H.,  var.  carnea.  Hayne.  Red  Flowering  Chestnut.  A small 
dense  foliage  round  topped  tree  bearing  large  red  blossoms.  Valu- 
able for  ornamental  planting. 

ALNUS  Rubra,  Bong.  Red  Alder.  Native  of  western  part  of 
the  United  States  and  Canada.  A large  shrub  or  small  round-headed 
tree,  frequently  attaining  twenty-five  feet  in  height.  It  is  occasion- 
ally used  for  ornamental  planting,  and  makes  a very  valuable  plant 
for  rich,  moist  or  even  wet  ground.  It  is  not  desirable  for  dry  situ- 
ations. 

AMEL AN CHIER  alnifolia,  Nutt.  Juneberry,  Shad-bush  or  Ser- 


Bulletin  No.  90. — Forest,  Shade  and  Ornamental  Trees  27 


vice-berry.  Native  of  practically  all  of  the  western  half  of  the  United 
States  and  southern  Canada.  A large  shrub  to  small  upright  tree. 
If  carefully  pruned  to  one  stem  the  June-berry  makes  a very  pretty 
upright  little  tree  v/hich  is  one  mass  of  beautiful  white  flowers  in 
April  or  May  and  produces  large  quantities  of  fruit  in  June  or  July. 
In  localities  where  fruit  is  scarce  it  is  some  times  used  as  food,  but 
ordinarily  its  chief  value  is  to  attract  birds  from  other  fruits.  It  is 
easily  transplanted  and  readily  propagated  by  suckers,  root  cuttings 
or  seeds. 

BETULA  alba,  Linn.  European  White  Birch.  Native  of  various 
parts  of  Europe  and  Asia.  A very  graceful  little  tree  with  white  bark 
and  slender  branches.  The  foliage  is  light  and  airy  and  so  produces 
very  little  shade,  which  makes  it  especially  valuable  for  lawns,  etc., 
where  a grassy  surface  is  desirable.  It  is  perfectly  hardy  here  and 
adapted  to  many  kinds  of  soil,  but  readily  responds  to  deep  rich  moist 
soil.  The  European  Birch  is  not  desirable  for  street  planting  but 
can  be  advantageously  used  in  forest  or  wood  lot  plantations.  While 
its  wood  is  not  valuable  it  is  extensively  used  for  furniture,  fuel,  etc. 
It  is  easily  transplanted,  rather  hard  to  propagate,  which  is  usually 
by  seeds,  but  makes  a rapid  growth  in  favorable  conditions. 

B.  a.,  var.  pendula.  Weeping  White  Birch.  This  is  a horticultur- 
al variety  of  the  preceding  species  which  it  resembles  very  closely 
but  differs  from  it  by  having  very  slender  pendulous  branches.  It  is 
extensively  used  for  lawn  and  park  planting  where  the  cut-leaved 
forms  are  too  expensive.  It  is  as  hardy  as  the  species  and  favors 
-practically  the  same  treatment. 

B.  a.,  var.  laciniata.  Cut-leaved  Weeping  Birch.  This  is  an- 
other horticultural  variety  of  the  European  White  Birch,  and  is 
especially  valuable  for  lawn  and  park  planting  on  account  of  its 
finely  divided  leaves  and  drooping  habit  of  its  slender  branches.  It 
is  considered  by  many  to  be  the  most  beautiful  of  all  lawn  trees,  and 
for  this  reason  is  commonly  called  “The  Queen  of  Trees.”  Its  tall 
slender  stem  and  long,  graceful  branches  make  it  very  attractive  to 
all.  It  is  perfectly  hardy  here,  but  apt  to  be  short-lived  on  dry 
soils.  On  deep  rich  moist  soil  it  is  long-lived  and  a rapid  grower. 
It  is  easily  transplanted,  but  difficult  to  propagate  since  it  must  be 
budded  or  grafted  on  common  stocks. 

B.  lutea,  Michx.  Yellow  Birch.  Native  of  Newfoundland  to 
North  Carolina  and  Tennessee  and  then  westward  to  Minnesota.  A 
tall  upright  tree  often  attaining  the  height  of  one  hundred  feet.  This 
is  one  of  our  most  valuable  forest  trees  for  cool  moist  soils,  but  it 
cannot  withstand  drouth.  The  wood  is  hard,  heavy,  close  grained 
and  very  valuable  and  is  frequently  termed  American  Mahogany. 


28 


State  College  Experiment  Station 


It  is  easily  transplanted  and  is  a rapid  grower  in  favorable  soils, 
but  not  recommended  for  dry  situations. 

B.  nigra,  Linn.  Red  Birch.  Native  of  the  eastern  part  of  the 
United  States.  A tall  slender  rapid  growing  tree  with  slender 
branches  and  dull  green  foliage.*  Valuable  for  wood  and  ornamental 
planting  in  moist  places.  Our  dry  southern  slopes  are  too  severe 
for  it  in  eastern  Washington. 

B.  populifolia,  Ait.  White  Birch.  Native  of  the  eastern  part  of 
the  United  States.  A small  slender  rapid  growing  tree  with  willowy 
branches  and  white  trunk.  A tree  that  prefers  moist  soil  yet  does 
very  well  on  dry  soil.  Valuable  here  for  wood  and  ornamental 
planting. 

CARPINUS  Caroliniana,  Walt.  American  Hornbeam.  Native  of  the 
eastern  part  of  the  United  States  westward  to  Minnesota  and  south 
to  Texas  and  Mexico.  A small  bushy  tree  rarely  attaining  a height 
of  forty  feet,  of  an  upright,  compact  nature  with  small  attractive 
leaves  and  much  desired  for  specimen  trees  in  lawns  and  parks. 
The  wood  is  very  tough,  heavy,  fine  grained  and  very  strong.  It  is 
not  a rapid  grower  but  is  easily  transplanted  and  has  done  well 
wherever  planted  upon  the  campus  and  experimental  plots.  It  is  pro- 
pagated by  sowing  the  seeds  as  soon  as  they  are  ripe  in  the  fall,  but 
the  germination  is  usually  irhegular  and  unsatisfactory. 

CATALPA  bignonioides,  Walt.  Catalpa.  Native  of  the  southern 
states  as  far  north  as  Tennessee.  A very  rapid  growing  round  topped 
tree  with  large  beautiful  leaves,  and  many  flowered  pinacles  of  large 
showy  flowers.  It  has  the  disadvantage  of  leaving  out  very  late  in 
the  spring  and  losing  its  foliage  very  early  in  the  fall,  but  in  July 
its  flowers  in  a measure  make  up  for  these  disadvantages.  It  oc- 
casionally kills  back  a little  here  on  the  grounds  but  as  a rule  it  may 
be  safely  used  for  ornamental  planting.  It  is  easily  transplanted, 
and  readily  propagated  from  seeds  planted  early  in  th  espring. 

C.  ovata,  Don.  Kaempfers  Catalpa.  Native  of  China  and  Japan. 
This  is  smaller  and  rather  slower  growing  tree  than  either  of  the 
other  forms.  On  the  Station  grounds  it  has  proved  itself  hardy  and 
worthy  of  a place  for  ornamental  purposes.  It  leaves  out  late  and 
loses  its  foliage  early  in  the  fall,  but  its  blossoms  are  very  attractive 
in  July.  It  produces  seed  abundantly  and  may  be  readily  propagat- 
ed from  seed  sown  in  the  spring. 

C.  speciosa,  Wardner.  Hardy  Catalpa.  A native  of  Illinois,  In- 
diana and  adjoining  states.  A tall  upright  growing  tree  often  at- 
taining one  hundred  or  more  feet  in  height.  For  protected  situa- 
tions this  is  a very  valuable  tree  not  only  ornamentally  but  also  for 
shade  and  forest  purposes.  In  dry  exposed  situations  it  frequently 
kills  back  somewhat  but  quickly  renews  its  growth  the  following 


Bulletin  No.  90. — Forest,  Shade  and  Ornamental  Trees  29 


year.  The  wood  is  light,  coarse  grained  and  very  durable  when  in 
contact  with  the  soil,  therefore  making  it  especially  valuable  for 
fence  posts  and  railroad  ties.  Its  large  leaves  and  attractive  blos- 
soms make  it  a general  favorite  for  park  planting.  It  is  easily 
transplanted  and  a rapid  grower  when  planted  in  moise  rich  soil. 
The  Hard  Catalpa  is  propagated  from  seed  sown  in  the  spring  and  oc- 
casionally from  cuttings  of  mature  wood.  When  used  as  a forest 
tree  it  should  be  permitted  to  grow  at  will  for  three  or  four  years 
and  then  cut  back  to  the  ground  with  the  idea  of  developing  one 
strong  straight  stem,  which  will  soon  produce  a fence  post,  railroad 
tie,  or  large  pieces  of  fine  wood.  This  practice  may  be  repeated 
several  times,  or  until  the  roots  .become  diseased  or  die  entirely. 

CASTANEA  Americana,  Raf.  American  Chestnut.  Native  of  the 
eastern  part  of  the  United  States  and  south  to  Alabama  and  Mississ- 
ippi. A tall,  vigorous,  upright  growing  tree  often  attaining  ninety 
to  one  hundred  feet  in  height.  It  is  valuable  for  shade,  ornamental 
and  forest  purposes.  The  wood  is  coarse  grained  and  extensively 
used  for  furniture,  railroad  ties,  posts,  etc.  Our  specimens  have 
made  a fairly  rapid  growth  and  are  very  attractive.  They  have 
not  matured  nuts  as  yet.  It  is  easily  transplanted  when  young  and 
rapidly  propagated  from  the  nuts  planted  as  soon  as  they  are  ripe 
or  stratified  in  sand  and  planted  very  early  in  the  sphing. 

C.  crenata,  Sieb.  Japanese  Chestnut.  Native  of  China  and  Japan. 
A small  tree  or  large  shrub  attaining  a height  of  twenty  to  thirty 
feet.  When  left  to  grow  naturally  it  produces  an  upright  dense 
shrub  which  is  very  ornamental  not  only  from  the  beauty  of  its 
foliage  but  also  on  account  of  the  large  upmber  of  burs  borne  in  the 
top  of  the  branches.  It  usually  begins  to  bear  nuts  at  six  years  of 
age  and  when  the  season  is  long  enough  produces  a large  crop  of 
nuts  which  are  fairly  good  both  raw  and  for  cooking  purposes.  It 
seems  to  be  perfectly  hardy  and  does  real  well  when  grown  upon 
moist,  rich  soil.  It  is  easily  transplanted  when  young  and  is  pro- 
pagated by  planting  the  nuts  are  soon  as  they  are  ripe  or  by  stratify- 
ing and  planting  in  the  spring.  As  a small  growing  tree  or  large 
shrub,  the  Japanese  Chestnut  has  few  deciduous  equals  for  orna- 
mental planting.  It  leaves  out  early  in  the  spring  and  retains  its 
foliage  late  in  fall.  The  foliage  frequently  colors  some  before  drop- 
ping. 

CELTIS  occidentalis,  Linn.  Hackberry.  Found  native  in  various 
parts  of  the  United  States  and  Canada.  A large  rapid  growing  beau- 
tiful shade,  lawn  and  park  tree.  It  does  best  in  moist,  rich  soil,  but 
still  makes  a splendid  growth  on  dry,  poor  soil.  This  tree  is  cer- 
tainly a valuable  substitute  for  the  American  Elm.  Its  beautiful  fol- 
iage and  slender  graceful  branches  make  it  useful  for  ornamental 


30 


State  College  Experiment  Station 


planting.  The  Hickberry  is  rather  difficult  to  propagate.  The  seeds 
should  be  sown  or  stratified  as  soon  as  ripe. 

CRATAEGUS  coccinea,  Linn.  Scarlet  Thorn.  Native  of  eastern 
part  of  North  America.  A large  round  topped  shrub  or  small  tree 
with  dark  green,  glossy  leaves,  and  white  blossoms  nearly  an  inch 
across  that  appear  in  May.  A very  valuable  plant  for  hedges, 
screens  and  specimen  planting. 

C.  Crus-galli,  Linn.  Cockspur  Thorn.  Native  of  eastern  United 
United  States  and  Canada.  A small  spreading  to  round  topped  tree 
with  dark  green,  glossy  foliage  and  numerous  long  curved  spines. 
This  is  one  of  the  most  striking  trees  of  the  Thorn  family  and  is  ex- 
tensively used  as  an  ornamental  plant.  It  is  a rapid  grower  and 
readily  adapts  itself  to  our  conditions  of  soil  and  climate. 

C.  Douglasi,  Lindl.  Douglas  Thorn.  Native  in  parts  of  British 
Columbia,  Washington,  Oregon  and  California.  A small  round  top- 
ped tree  thirty  to  forty  feet  high,  often  having  pendulous  branches, 
which  makes  it  a very  ornamental  plant  for  lawn  or  park  planting. 
During  the  last  of  May  or  early  in  June  it  is  covered  with  beautiful 
large  bunches  of  pure  white  flowers  and  in  autumn  its  fruit  is  very 
ornamental.  Early  in  the  fall  its  foliage  takes  a light  yellow  and 
later  changes  to  a beautiful  crimson  color.  Specimens  or  small 
groups  of  this  plant  are  very  valuable  for  park  or  lawn  planting.  It 
may  be  propagated  by  seeds  which  usually  require  two  years  to  germ- 
inate, or  by  grafting  or  budding  upon  another  Thorn  or  even  a com- 
mon apple  stock. 

C.  mollis,  Scheele.  Smooth  Thorn.  Native  of  the  eastern  and 
central  part  of  the  United  States  and  eastern  Canada.  A small  rapid 
growing,  round  topped  tree  with  dense  dark  green  foliage  and  strong 
erect  branches.  Its  blossoms  in  May  and  bright  red  fruit  in  Septem- 
ber make  it  valuable  for  ornamental  planting.  Considered  by  many 
to  be  the  best  native  thorn  in  America. 

C.  Oxyacantha,  Linn.  English  Hawthorn.  Native  of  Europe  and 
Africa.  A small,  rapid  growing,  round  topped  tree,  with  beautiful 
dark  green  foliage.  The  great  masses  of  pink  and  white  blossoms 
which  appear  in  May  make  this  tree  one  of  our  most  valuable  orna- 
mental plants.  It  requires  one  or  two  years  to  become  established 
but  after  that  it  does  very  well,  even  on  dry  soil.  A valuable  plant 
for  hedges,  screens  and  ornamental  planting. 

C.  pyracantha,  Ait.  Evergreen  Thorn.  . Native  of  Europe.  A 
small  irregularily  topped  evergreen  tree  with  small  dark  green 
leaves,  thorny  branches  and  numerous  red  berries.  A plant  that 
starts  into  growth  very  slowly  after  being  transplanted.  Valuable 
for  ornamental  planting. 

C.  Piperi.  Pipers’  Thorn.  Native  of  western  United  States.  A 


Bulletin  No.  90. — Forest,  Shade  and  Ornamental  Trees  31 


small,  dense,  round  topped  tree,  with  dark  green  foliage,  abundance 
of  white  blossoms  in  May  and  bright  red  fruit  in  August.  Useful  for 
ornamental  planting. 

ELAEGNUS  augustifolia,  Lin.  Russian  Wild  Olive  or  Oleaster. 

Native  of  Southern  Europe  and  Western  Asia.  A hardy,  small,  rapid 
growing,  round  topped  tree  or  large  shrub  with  long  silvery  gray 
leaves.  It  leaves  out  early  in  the  spring,  produces  a lot  of  small, 
yellow,  fragrant  blossoms  the  last  of  June  and  holds  its  leaves  late 
into  the  winter.  It  is  particularly  adapted  to  our  long,  dry,  dusty 
summers,  is  valuable  for  shade,  ornamental  planting  and  hedges  and 
is  one  of  the  few  ornamental  trees  that  will  thrive  in  strong  alkali 
soil.  When  used. as  a hedge  plant,  the  constant  shearing  and  clip- 
ping develops  an  unusual  number  of  sharp  thorns  making  it  a barrier 
that  will  turn  stock  of  all  kinds.  The  Wild  Olive,  as  it  is  commonly 
called,  is  readily  propagated  from  seeds  and  transplants  very  easily, 
if  taken  before  it  is  more  than  four  years  old. 

FAGUS  sylvatica,  Linn.  European  Beech.  Native  of  central  and 
Southern  Europe.  A medium  sized,  upright  tree,  with  feathery 
limbs  and  silky  foliage.  One  of  the  most  beautiful  ornamental  trees 
but  very  difficult  to  transplant  after  it  has  passed  its  seeding  stage. 
It  forms  a very  strong  tap  root  with  few  laterals  thus  making  it  al- 
most impossible  to  transplant  large  trees  that  have  never  been  reset 
before.  All  Beeches  should  be  severely  pruned  and  little  top  growth 
expected  before  the  second  or  third  year  after  being  transplanted. 

F.  hetercpliylla.  Loud.  Fern-leaved  Beech.  A horticultural  form 
with  a dense,  compact  top,  cut  leaves  and  tendril-like  branches.  Val- 
uable for  planting  on  north  slopes  in  moist  soils  or  protected  situa- 
tions but  of  little  value  in  exposed  places  in  eastern  Washington. 

F.  purpurea,  Ait.  Purple  Beech.  A purple  form  of  the  Euro- 
pean Beech  grown  for  its  beautiful  dark  purple  foliage.  Our  speci- 
mens have  made  a splendid  growth  during  the  past  years  and  while 
usually  considered  tender,  yet  they  appear  to  be  hardy  enough  for 
this  climate.  Very  difficult  to  transplant  except  when  young. 

FRAXINUS  Americana,  Linn.  White  Ash.  Native  from  Canada 
to  Florida  and  west  to  Minnesota  and  Texas.  The  White  Ash,  if  well 
grown,  is  one  of  our  most  valuable  as  well  as  ornamental  trees. 
It  is  large,  often  one  hundred  and  twenty  feet  high,  round  topped, 
dense  foliaged,  and  well  branched.  It  is  used  extensively  for  shade, 
wind-break  and  wood  lot  planting.  The  wood  is  valuable  and  dur- 
able. Under  normal  conditions  the  tree  is  perfectly  hardy,  easily 
transplanted  and  a rapid  grower.  It  is  ocassionally  troubled  with  ash 
aphis  but  may  be  easily  freed  by  proper  spraying.  It  is  easily  pro- 
pagated by  planting  seed  in  the  fall  or  keeping  dry  and  planting  in 
spring. 


32 


State  College  Experiment  Station 


F.  excelsior,  Linn.  English  Ash.  Native  of  Europe  and  Asia. 
A large  rapid  growing,  upright  tree  with  dark  green  foliage  and 
strong,  erect  limbs.  Valuable  as  a shade  tree  in  moist  soil  but  of  lit- 
tle value  in  hard  dry  soils.  It  requires  severe  pruning  when  young  to 
get  the  best  results.  Propagated  from  seed  sown  as  soon  as  ripe  or 
stratified  and  sown  early  the  next  spring. 

F.  lanceolata,  Borkh.  Green  Ash.  Native  from  Maine  to  Florida 
and  west  to  the  Rocky  Mountains.  A medium  sized,  round  topped 
tree,  often  attaining  a height  of  sixty  feet  or  more.  It  is  very  de- 
sirable for  its  wood  which  is  hard  and  strong  but  coarse  grained  and 
brittle.  Valuable  for  shade  and  street  planting  since  it  stands  neg- 
lect and  drouth  remarkably  well  and  is  extremely  hardy,  but  has  the 
habit  of  starting  into  growth  early  enough  each  spring  to  get  caught 
occasionally  by  a late  spring  frost  and  is  subject  to  bad  attacks  of 
green  aphis.  Under  favorable  conditions  of  soil  and  moisture  the 
Green  Ash  is  easily  transplanted  and  makes  a rapid  growth.  It  is 
easily  propagated  by  planting  the  seeds  in  the  fall  or  keeping  them 
until  spring  and  then  plant.  The  seedlings  of  the  Green  Ash  vary 
much  the  same  as  other  seedlings.  So,  by  a little  care  in  selection, 
it  is  possible  to  secure  a wide  variation  in  color  as  well  as  the  time 
of  falling  of  the  foliage. 

F.  nigra,  Marsh.  Black  Ash.  Native  of  the  central  parts  of  the 
United  States.  A small,  slow  growing  tree,  with  gray  green  leaves. 
While  it  does  fairly  well  on  moist  soil,  yet  it  is  of  no  value  for  this 
state. 

F.  Oregona,  Nutt.  Oregon  Ash.  The  Oregon  Ash  is  purely  a 
western  tree,  being  native  of  parts  of  Oregon  and  California.  It  is  a 
round  topped,  strongly  branched  tree,  with  smooth  gray  bark,  at- 
taining a height  of  from  seventy  to  eighty  feet.  Under  favorable 
conditions  of  soil  and  climate  the  Oregon  Ash  makes  a nice  shade 
tree,  produces  a fair  quality  of  wood  and  is  easily  transplanted. 
The  hard  freezes  of  March  10,  11,  12,  ’06,  killed  this  back  severely 
in  eastern  Washington.  So  for  this  reason  we  cannot  recommend 
it  as  being  perfectly  hardy.  It  may  be  easily  propagated  from  seeds 
sown  in  fall  or  spring,  which  come  the  first  year  after  planting. 

F.  Ornus,  Linn.  Flowering  Ash.  A native  of  Southern  Europe 
and  western  Asia.  The  Flowering  Ash  is  a medium  sized,  round 
topped  to  conical  shaped  tree,  with  beautiful  dense  foliage,  compact 
upright  branches,  firm  heavy  crotches,  which  seldom  or  ever  split 
or  break  in  the  winds,  and  a smooth  gray  green  trunk.  It  is  one  of 
our  most  ornamental  and  attractive  trees  which  may  be  used  for 
street,  wood  lot  or  shade  planting.  It  is  free  from  insect  pests  and 
fungus  diseases  and  so  gives  us  a very  clean  tree.  Under  favorable 
conditions  it  is  easily  transplanted,  a rapid  grower,  and  readily  pro- 


Bulletin  No.  90.— Forest,  Shade  and  Ornamental  Trees  33 


pagated  from  seeds  which  usually  require  two  years  to  germinate. 
It  starts  into  growth  late  in  spring  and  thereby  is  seldom  caught  by 
the  late  frosts.  It  is  perfectly  hardy  on  the  station  grounds.  The 
Flowering  Ash  should  be  extensively  planted  not  only  on  account 
of  its  beauty  but  also  for  its  wood  producing  tendencies. 

F.  quadrangulata,  Michx.  Blue  Ash.  Native  of  the  central  part 
of  the  United  States.  A large  upright  growing  tree  with  dense  foliage 
and  corky  branches.  It  requires  moist  soil  to  secure  the  best  re- 
sults. Not  valuable  in  this  state. 

GINKO  biloba,  Linn.  Maidenhair  Tree.  A native  of  northern 
China  which  was  introduced  into  the  United  States  almost  a century 
ago,  and  has  now  become  a very  popular  tree  where  the  climate  is 
not  too  severe.  It  is  a tall,  slender,  thinly  branched,  upright  grow- 
ing tree  extensively  used  for  ornamental  planting.  While  it  has  not 
been  planted  in  large  numbers  in  the  state,  yet  beautiful  specimens 
are  frequently  seen.  The  Maidenhair  Tree  is  easily  transplanted  and 
naturally  prefers  a moist,  rich  soil,  but  does  remarkably  well  on  dry 
soil.  It  is  usually  propagated  from  seed  stratified  as  soon  as  ripe  in 
the  fall  and  then  planted  in  the  spring. 

GYMNOCLADUS  Canadensis,  Lam.  Coffeetree,  Kentucky  Coffee 
Tree.  Native  of  the  south  central  part  of  the  United  States.  A very 
rare  forest  tree  of  irregular  form.  One  is  usually  attracted  by  its 
oddness  rather  than  beauty.  Its  bare,  peculiar  limbs  in  winter,  its 
rich  brown  leaves,  which  appear  so  late  in  spring,  and  the  large 
brown  pods  each  add  to  its  attractiveness.  While  our  specimens  have 
made  a tall  growth  they  contain  but  few  lateral  branches.  It  seems 
to  be  perfectly  hardy.  The  Coffeetree  is  propagated  from  seeds  which 
should  be  scalded  before  planting. 

HICORIA  laeiniosa,  Sarg.  Big  Shell-bark  Hickory.  Native  of  the 
central  and  southeast  part  of  the  United  States.  A large  growing 
tree  with  dull  green  foliage  and  strong  branches.  A tree  that  starts 
to  grow  very  slowly  but  does  well  on  moist  rich  ground. 

H.  mimimia,  Britt.  Bitter  Nut.  Native  of  eastern  United  States 
and  Canada.  A large  upright  broad  topped  tree  with  dense  foliage 
and  strong  branches.  It  grows  very  rapidly  in  moist  soils  and  re- 
sponds readily  to  cultivation  and  irrigation.  A valuable  tree  for 
shade,  forest  and  ornamental  planting.  Propagated  from  nuts  plant- 
ed as  soon  as  ripe  or  stratified  and  planted  as  early  as  possible  the 
next  spring. 

H.  Pecan,  Britt.  Pecan  Nut.  Native  of  central  and  eastern  part 
of  the  United  States.  A tall  upright  growing  forest  tree  when 
young,  but  spreading  and  irregular  when  old.  Not  a rapid  grower 
with  us  but  a valuable  forest  tree  in  many  ways.  Propagated  by 
planting  nuts  or  budding  on  seedlings. 


34 


State  College  Experiment  Station 


JUGLANS  cinerea,  Linn.  Butternut.  Native  of  New  Brunswick 
to  Georgia,  west  to  South  Dakota  and  Arkansas.  A tall,  lofty  tree 
when  grown  in  forest  conditions,  but  large,  spreading,  round  topped 
tree  when  grown  in  the  open.  It  leaves  out  late  in  spring,  but  has 
pretty  dense  foliage  in  the  summer  time  which  is  practically  free 
from  insects  and  plant  diseases.  The  wood  is  light,  rather  soft,  coarse 
grained  and  not  nearly  so  valuable  as  the  Black  Walnut.  It  should 
be  planted  extensively  not  only  for  its  wood  and  ornamental  values 
but  also  for  the  nuts  it  produces.  On  rich  moist  soil  it  is  a rapid 
grower,  produces  large  crops  of  nuts,  and  is  easily  transplanted.  It  is 
propagated  practically  the  same  as  the  Black  Walnut. 

J.  Mandschuriea,  Maxin.  Mandschurian  Walnut.  Native  of  east- 
ern Asia.  A valuable  nut  and  wood  producing  tree  for  the  irrigated 
valleys  but  not  hardy  enough  for  the  uplands  of  eastern  Washing- 
ton. The  trees  always  make  a strong  growth  each  year  at  the  Sta- 
tion and  winter  kill  from  one-half  to  two-thirds  of  the  new  wood 
each  year. 

J.  nigra,  Linn.  Black  Walnut.  Native  of  Massachusetts  to 
Florida,  west  to  Minnesota  and  Texas.  A tall  upright  tree,  often  at- 
taining one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  in  height  when  grown  under  for- 
est conditions  but  when  grown  in  the  open  it  is  spreading  or  even 
round  topped.  The  foliage  appears  late  in  the  spring  and  is  dense 
and  beautiful.  The  wood  is  hard  and  strong  and  considered  one  of 
our  most  valuable  woods.  The  tree  is  practically  free  from  insects 
but  is  occasionally  slightly  affected  with  walnut  anthrocnose  which 
fortunately  does  very  little  damage  here  in  Washington.  Under 
favorable  conditions  of  moisture  and  rich  soil  it  is  easily  transplant- 
ed and  makes  a rapid  growth.  It  is  sometimes  difficult  and  expen- 
sive to  transplant  successfully  old  walnut  trees  which  have  never  had 
tap  roots  cut,  but  most  nursery  men  are  now  prepared  to  supply  their 
customers  with  trees  that  have  well  branched  roots  thus  making 
transplanting  easy.  One  of  our  most  valuable  shade  trees. 

J.  regia,  The  Persian  or  English  Walnut.  Native  of  southern 
Europe  and  Asia.  A very  valuable  shade  and  nut  producing  tree  in 
many  parts  of  the  state.  And  while  hardy  enough  to  grow  anywhere 
in  the  state,  yet  some  sections  are  too  severe  for  it  to  become  of 
value  as  a nut  producing  tree.  In  Eastern  Washington  it  winter 
kills  when  young,  but  does  well  after  becoming  thoroughly  establish- 
ed. None  but  the  hardiest  sorts  such  as  Mayette  and  Franquette  var- 
ieties should  be  planted.  The  walnuts  are  easily  transplanted  when 
young,  readily  grown  from  nuts  but  difficult  to  bud  or  graft. 

J.  Sieboldiana  Maxin.  Japanese  Walnut.  Native  of  eastern  Asia. 
This  species  has  made  splendid  growth  in  our  plots  and  while  tender 
when  young  it  soon  becomes  hardy  enough  to  stand  our  winters.  Like 


Bulletin  No.  90. — Forest,  Shade  and  Ornamental  Trees  35 


the  English  and  Mandschurian  Walnuts,  it  does  very  well  in  the 
irrigated  valleys  and  Western  Washington. 

Walnuts  are  easily  propagated  by  gathering  the  nuts  in  fall  and 
either  planting  at  once  or  stratifying  in  sand  and  then  planting  the 
following  spring. 

LIRIODENDRON  Tulipifera,  Linn.  Tulip  Tree.  Native  of  central 
and  eastern  parts  of  the  United  States.  A large  rapid  growing  tree 
with  beautiful  lobed  leaves  and  large  greenish  yellow  tulip  like  flow- 
ers. One  of  the  most  beautiful  lawn  and  park  trees  in  America.  It 
is  very  difficult  to  transplant  and  should  be  attempted  only  when 
small.  The  Tulip  Tree  requires  deep  moist  soil  for  its  best  develop- 
ment and  should  not  be  expected  to  grow  on  very  dry  soil.  Our 
specimens  on  a northern  slope  have  made  splendid  growths  while 
those  on  southern  or  western  slopes  have  practically  all  failed.  It 
starts  into  growth  very  slowly  but  after  once  becoming  established 
makes  very  rapid  growth.  Where  proper  conditions  exist  it  is  a very 
valuable  forest  tree.  Not  generally  valuable  except  on  northern 
slopes  in  eastern  Washington. 

MORUS  alba,  Linn.  White  Mulberry  or  Russian  Mulberry.  A 
small  round  topped  tree  that  was  introduced  into  the  central  states 
by  the  Russian  Mennonites,  who  made  use  of  it  as  a fruit,  a hedge 
plant,  and  when  the  wood  attained  sufficient  size,  for  fuel.  It  is  very 
rapid  in  its  growth,  but  occasionally  kills  back  during  our  late  spring 
frosts.  Some  individual  trees  bear  fairly  edible  fruit  but  it  is  usual- 
ly considered  worthless  where  so  much  better  fruit  may  be  grown. 
The  Russian  Mulberry  is  used  for  ornamental  planting  and  wind- 
break purposes,  but  is  not  at  all  adapted  to  our  dry  southern  slopes. 

PLATANUS  oecidentalis,  Linn.  Sycamore,  American  Plane  Tree.  A 
native  of  Maine  to  Minnesota  and  south  to  Florida  and  Texas.  A 
large  round  topped  or  broad  headed  tree  from  one  hundred  and  fifty 
to  one  hundred  and  seventy-five  feet  high.  It  is  very  valuable  for 
shade,  street  and  park  planting,  being  especially  ornamental  and  at- 
tractive on  account  of  its  silver  gray  leaves.  It  is  easily  transplanted 
makes  a rapid  growth  in  moist  soil  and  is  readily  propagated  from 
seed  sown  in  spring  after  being  kept  moist  during  winter,  or  from 
cuttings  or  ripe  or  green  wood. 

POPULUS  alba,  Linn.  White  Poplar,  Silver  Poplar  or  erroneously 
called  Silver  Maple.  Native  of  Europe  and  Asia.  A very  pretty 
round  topped  spreading  tree,  attaining  large  size  in  a comparative- 
ly short  time.  On  account  of  its  very  rapid  growth  is  valuable  for 
shade,  street  and  wood  lot  planting.  It  is  perfectly  hardy  and  under 
normal  conditions  of  moisture  and  fertility  produces  good  sized  boles 
and  considerable  branch  wood  in  a few  years.  It  should  not  be  plant- 
ed too  extensively,  however,  on  lawns  or  in  parks  since  it  tends  to 


36 


State  College  Experiment  Station 


cheapen  the  effect,  although  a few  trees  may  be  advantageously  used 
to  lighten  up  the  more  sombre  clumps.  The  wood  is  light,  soft,  close 
grained  and,  if  properly  cured,  makes  a good  fuel.  It  is  easily  pro- 
pagated from  hardwood  cuttings  or  by  digging  the  suckers  which 
spring  up  abundantly  around  the  trunks  of  old  trees.  The  trouble 
these  suckers  cause  may  be  helped  somewhat  by  carefully  pulling 
them  out  instead  of  cutting  as  is  usually  the  case. 

P.  a.,  vai\  Bolleana,  Lauch.  Bolles  Poplar.  A varietal  form 
of  the  common  White  Poplar,  resembling  the  Lombardy  Poplar  in 
habit  and  growth.  Its  upright  growth  gives  it  a very  striking  ap- 
pearance and  makes  it  especially  valuable  for  mixed  planting  in 
small  numbers  on  lawns,  in  parks,  etc.  It  does  not  sucker  so  freely 
from  the  roots  as  most  Poplars  but  it  occasionally  sends  up  a sprout. 
It  may  be  propagated  from  mature  hardwood  cuttings. 

P.  balsamifera,  Linn.  Balsam  Poplar.  A native  of  northern 
United  States  and  southern  Canada.  A large  upright  growing  tree 
which  is  very  useful  for  shade,  hedge  and  wood  lot  purposes. 

From  the  nature  of  its  rapid  growth,  its  ability  to  withstand 
drouth  and  severe  winters  it  becomes  one  of  our  valuable  but  short- 
lived trees.  While  it  does  fairly  well  on  dry,  poor,  soil,  yet  it  does 
real  well  on  rich,  moist  soils.  It  is  easily  propagated  from  hardwood 
cuttings  and  readily  transplanted  either  as  large  or  small  trees. 

P.  b.,  var.  candicans,  Gray.  Balm  of  Gilead.  Native  from  New 
Brunswick  to  Minnesota.  A large  strong  growing  round  topped  tree 
often  attaining  one  hundred  or  more  feet  in  height.  As  a quick 
growing  tree  it  is  especially  valuable  for  wood  lot  purposes  and  may 
occasionally  be  used  for  street  trees.  It  is  probably  the  best  of  the 
Poplar  for  shade  purposes,  but  has  the  undesirable  feature  of  oc- 
casionally losing  its  top  in  wind  storms  or  at  least  becoming  unsight- 
ly and  also  suckering  freely  in  the  lawn.  It  stands  drouth  fairly 
well  but  does  not  take  kindly  to  dust  and  smoke  of  city  life.  The 
wood  is  fine  grained,  soft  and  not  very  strong.  Its  vigorous  growth 
and  pleasant  odor  given  off  by  the  buds  make  it  a general  favorite. 
The  Balm  of  Gilead  is  easily  propagated  from  cuttings  of  mature 
wood  or  suckers  planted  any  time  when  the  leaves  are  off  the  tree. 

P.  Caroliensis,  Hort.  Carolina  Poplar.  A large  rapid  growing 
upright  form  of  the  Cottonwood  with  large  dark  green  leaves  and 
strong,  erect  branches.  This  tree  is  taking  the  place  of  the  Lom- 
bardy Poplar  as  well  as  the  common  Cottonwood  to  a large  extent  in 
the  new  plantations  that  are  now  being  made  in  many  parts  of  the 
country.  It  is  a superior  tree  in  every  way  not  only  on  account  of 
its  rapid  growth  but  because  it  never  gives  off  any  cotton  so  trouble- 
some with  tree  cottonwood.  It  is  easily  propagated  from  cuttings 


Bulletin  No.  90. — Forest,  Shade  and  Ornamental  Trees  37 


taken  when  the  tree  is  dormant  and  grows  better  in  dry  soil  than  any 
other  Cottonwood. 

P.  deltoides,  Marsh.  Cottonwood.  Native  of  Quebec,  Rocky 
Mountains  and  South.  A very  large  round  headed,  much  branched 
tree  frequently  attaining  one  hundred  or  more  feet  in  height.  It  is 
valuable  for  shade,  ornamental,  forest  and  wind-break  purposes.  The 
wood  is  light,  spongy,  weak  and  soon  decays  when  in  contact  with 
the  soil.  Its  ability  to  withstand  severe  winters  and  dry  summers 
has  caused  it  to  be  used  entirely  too  much.  Many  cities  are  now 
passing  ordinances  against  the  use  of  this  tree  for  street  purposes 
on  account  of  it  giving  off  so  much  cotton  at  seeding  time.  How- 
ever, this  difficulty  may  be  avoided  by  propagating  from  the  stamin- 
ate  sort.  It  is  readily  propagated  from  cuttings  taken  any  time  dur- 
ing the  dormant  period  and  either  planted  at  once  or  stored  until 
early  spring. 

P.  laurifolia,  Ledeb.  Russian  Poplar.  Native  of  Europe  and 
Asia.  A short-lived  rather  large  upright  growing  tree  very  useful  for 
wind-break  and  wood  lot  purposes.  Its  upright  habit  renders  it  un- 
serviceable for  street  or  shade  purposes.  The  specimens  on  the  campus 
have  made  a rapid  growth  and  shown  a wonderful  resistance  to 
drouth  which  makes  it  an  especially  valuable  tree  for  general  wind- 
break planting.  It  has  the  tendency  of  producing  a large,  tapering 
trunk.  It  may  be  readily  grown  from  cuttings  or  suckers  which 
spring  up  abundantly  around  old  trees. 

P.  nigra,  var.,  ltalica,  Du  Roi.  Lombary  Poplar.  A tall  colum- 
nar growing  tree  brought  to  this  country  from  Asia.  A tree  that 
might  well  be  called  the  “Missionary  of  Trees,”  since  it  is  usually 
always  used  as  a forerunner  of  better  and  more  permanent  varie- 
ties. It  is  liked  on  account  of  its  rapid  growth,  ability  to  withstand 
severe  weather,  both  cold  and  dry,  and  the  rapidity  with  which  it 
forms  a large  amount  of  wood.  The  wood  is  light,  soft,  not  strong, 
and  can  be  used  for  about  the  same  purposes  as  Cottonwood.  The 
Lombardy  Poplar  is  usually  a short-lived  tree  )r  at  least  soon  be- 
comes ragged  at  the  top.  This  can  be  helped,  however,  by  an  occa- 
sional severe  cutting  back  which  in  a measure  rejuvenates  the  tree 
and  lengthens  its  life.  Too  much  has  been  expected  of  this  tree  and 
consequently  it  has  been  over  planted  in  a few  sections  of  the  state. 
Its  particular  value  lies  in  its  quick  growth,  making  it  suitable  for 
wind-break  and  wood  lot  plantations,  but  it  should  never  be  used 
as  a shade  or  street  tree,  and  sparingly  used  in  ornamental  planting. 
It  is  readily  propagated  from  hardwood  cuttings  or  by  suckers  from 
the  roots. 

P.  tremula,  Linn.  European  Aspen.  Native  of  Europe  and  Asia. 
A medium  sized,  open  topped  tree  with  small  leaves  attached  to  long 


38 


State  College  Experiment  Station 


slender  petioles  which  causes  the  constant  quivering  so  common  in 
the  Aspen  tree.  It  is  a valuable  little  tree  for  shade,  ornamental 
planting  in  moist,  or  even  wet  soils,  but  is  of  little  value  in  dry  soils. 
Propagated  easily  from  cuttings  or  root  sprouts. 

P.  t.,  var.,  pendula,  Hort.  An  attractive  weeping  form  of  the 
European  Aspen.  Grows  well  in  dry  soil,  but  prefers  moist  or  even 
wet  soil.  Propagated  from  cuttings  taken  when  the  tree  is  dormant. 

P.  tremuloides,  Michx.  American  Aspen.  Native  in  some  of  its 
forms  of  practically  all  parts  of  the  United  States.  A small  rapid 
growing  tree  when  young,  but  slow  growing  when  old;  seldom  at- 
taining more  than  fifty  or  sixty  feet  in  height.  Like  the  Birch  it  is 
always  ready  to  follow  the  forest  fire  or  lumberman’s  ax.  Its  smooth 
greenish  white  bark,  pendulous  limbs,  ever  quivering  leaves  and 
beautiful  autumn  coloration  of  its  foliage  make  it  a general  favorite 
for  planting  in  a limited  way  on  lawns,  parks,  etc.  In  moist  rich 
soil  it  is  a rapid  grower  and  does  fairly  well  even  on  dry  soil.  The 
wood  is  light,  soft  and  fine  grained.  Its  principal  use  is  for  paper 
pulp.  The  Aspen  is  readily  propagated  from  hardwood  cuttings  and 
by  the  use  of  suckers  which  spring  up  abundantly. 

P.  trichocarpa,  Hook.  Black  Cottonwood.  Native  of  western 
United  States.  A very  large  broad  open  topped  tree  with  large 
straight  bole  and  horizontal  branches.  The  lumber  is  valuable  for 
paper  pulp,  thin  box  material  and  other  domestic  purposes.  It  grows 
rapidly  in  moist  soil  and  is  valuable  for  wind-breaks  and  forest 
planting. 

PRUNUS  Americana,  ]Marsh.  American  Wild  Plum.  Native  of  the 
central  parts  of  the  United  States.  A small  round  topped  tree  with 
slender  branches  and  numerous  thorns.  It  grows  well  in  dry  soil  but 
prefers  moist  or  even  wet  soil  for  its  best  development.  Its  num- 
erous white  blossoms  in  May,  hardy  nature,  and  red  and  yellow  edi- 
ble fruit  in  September  make  it  valuable  as  a hedge  plant,  small 
shade  tree  and  ornamental  plant.  It  is  easily  transplanted  and  may 
be  propagated  from  root  cuttings  or  seeds. 

P.  avium,  Linn.  Mazzard  Cherry.  Native  of  Europe  and  Asia. 
A.  tall  rapid  growing  tree  with  erect  branches  and  dark  green  foliage, 
usually  used  as  a stock  for  sweet  cherries  but  of  value  as  an  orna- 
mental and  forest  tree.  Its  beautiful  now  white  blossoms  in  May 
and  abundance  of  ripe  fruit  in  July  makes  it  doubly  attractive  for 
park  and  shade  tree  planting.  It  is  easily  propagated  from  seeds 
and  readily  transplanted. 

P.  cerasifera,  Ehrh,  Myrabalan  Plum.  Native  of  Europe.  A 
small  shrubby  tree  with  erect  branches  and  dark  green  foliage,  usual- 
ly used  as  a stock  upon  which  to  bud  known  varieties  of  the  common 
plum.  Valuable  as  a hedge  plant,  small  shade  tree  or  low  screen. 


Bulletin  No.  90. — Forest,  Shade  and  Ornamental  Trees  39 


It  makes  a rapid  growth  in  almost  any  kind  of  soil  and  is  easily 
transplanted. 

P.  c.,  Pissardi,  Hort.  Purple-leaved  Plum.  A very  attractive 
form  of  the  preceding  species  with  dark  reddish  purple  foliage  and 
dark  wine  red  fruits.  It  is  one  of  our  best  purple-leaved  trees  and 
seems  to  adapt  itself  to  all  kinds  of  conditions.  Valuable  for  lawn 
and  park  planting  only  where  individual  trees  are  desired. 

P.  Cerasus,  Linn.  Sour  Cherry.  Native  of  Europe.  A small 
round  headed  tree  with  willowy  branches  and  dark  green  foliage. 
While  ordinarily  used  as  a fruit  tree  yet  it  has  splendid  ornamental 
values  as  a specimen  tree  or  small  shade  tree  for  lawn  or  park  plant- 
ing. It  is  easily  propagated  from  seed  planted  as  soon  as  ripe  or 
stratified  and  planted  early  in  spring,  but  has  the  undesirable  habit 
of  suckering  quite  freely. 

P.  Mahaleb,  Linn.  Mahal^b  Cherry.  Native  of  Europe.  A small 
round  topped  tree  with  slender  horizontal  branches  and  small  dark 
green  leaves.  Its  ability  to  grow  in  hard,  dry  soils,  early  white 
blossoms  and  general  spreading  habit  make  it  of  value  for  orna- 
mental planting  especially  where  thin  shade  is  desirable. 

P.  Pennsylvanica,  Linn.  Bird  or  Pin  Cherry.  Native  of  many 
parts  of  the  United  States.  A small  rapid  growing  tree  with  willowy 
branches  and  light  green  foliage.  The  small  bunches  of  white  blos- 
soms appear  in  May  and  the  fruit  ripens  in  September.  It  is  readily 
propagated  from  seeds  and  thrives  in  almost  any  soil  but  prefers 
moist  or  even  wet  soil.  It  has  the  undesirable  habit  of  suckering 
■quite  freely. 

P.  Padus,  Linn.  European  Bird  Cherry.  Native  of  Europe  and 
Asia.  A small  erect  growing  tree  resembling  in  many  ways  the 
common  Choke  Cherry.  Its  very  early  leafing  and  blooming  habits 
make  it  desirable  as  an  ornamental  plant.  It  is  a rapid  grower  and 
does  well  on  almost  any  kind  of  soil  and  is  easily  transplanted. 

P.  P.,  varM  fl.  pi.  Hort.  Double  Flowering  Cherry.  A horti- 
cultural variety  of  the  Bird  Cherry  with  large  double  white  flowers 
making  it  especially  valuable  for  ornamental  planting.  Apparently 
hardy  here,  a rapid  grower  and  one  that  does  well  on  almost  any 
kind  of  soil. 

P.  Persica,  fl.  pi.  Hort.  Double  Flowering  Peach.  A rapid  grow- 
ing double  flowering  form  of  the  common  peach.  Valuable  as  an  or- 
namental plant  for  all  kinds  of  lawn  or  park  planting.  Propagated 
by  budding  the  seedlings  of  the  peach. 

P.  serotina,  Ehrh.  Wild  Black  Cherry.  Native  from  Nova  Scotia 
to  South  Dakota  and  south  to  Florida  and  Texas.  A tall,  large, 
straight  or  sometimes  spreading  tree,  frequently  attaining  one  hun- 
dred feet  or  more  in  height.  This  is  one  of  our  valuable  timber, 


40 


State  College  Experiment  Station 


shade,  street  and  park  trees.  The  wood  is  light,  strong  and  rather 
hard,  of  reddish  brown  color  and  takes  on  a beautiful  satin  finish, 
which  makes  it  especially  valuable  for  cabinet  making  and  interior 
work  and  for  school  apparatus,  etc.  The  Wild  Black  Cherry  is  a 
general  favorite  as  a specimen  tree  on  account  of  its  dark  glossy  fol- 
iage which  remains  late  on  the  tree  in  the  fall.  Its  numerous  clust- 
ers of  beautiful  white  flowers  which  come  out  in  May  and  its  attrac- 
tive red  and  black  fruit  which  frequently  cling  to  the  tree  until  Nov- 
ember make  it  very  ornamental  for  lawn  and  park  planting.  It  is 
propagated  from  seeds  which  must  be  planted  as  soon  as  they  are 
picked  or  stratified  in  sand  until  spring  and  then  planted. 

P.  spinosa,  Linn.  Black  Thorn.  Native  of  various  parts  of  Eu- 
rope, Asia  and  Africa.  This  large  bush  or  small  tree  is  frequently 
cultivated  as  a hedge  plant  or  a small  ornamental  tree.  It  is  espec- 
ially attractive  in  May  when  in  full  bloom  and  during  the  fall  when 
its  fruit  is  of  bluish  purple  color.  The  Blackthorn  is  a bad  sprouter 
and  when  planted  on  a lawn  frequently  gives  serious  trouble  to  the 
lawn  mower.  It  is  perfectly  hardy  and  may  readily  be  propagated 
from  its  pits  or  by  digging  the  suckers. 

P.  Virginiana,  Linn.  Choke  Cherry.  Native  of  practically  all 
parts  of  the  United  States.  It  varies  from  a bush  to  a round  topped 
upright  tree  thirty  or  more  feet  in  height.  It  is  highly  ornamental 
when  in  bloom  in  May  and  can  be  advantageously  used  when  a small 
shade  tree  is  desired.  It  usually  bears  a large  crop  of  small  black 
cherries  which  add  to  its  beauty  in  the  fall.  It  has  the  undesirable 
features  of  suckering  freely,  which  interferes  with  the  lawn.  The 
wood  is  heavy,  close  grained,  and  light  colored.  It  is  a very  de- 
sirable plant  for  low  wind-breaks  and  shade  in  poultry  yards.  The 
Choke  Cherry  is  easily  propagated  from  seed  or  suckers  and  one  ex- 
periences no  difficulty  in  transplanting. 

PYRUS  Baccata,  Linn.  Siberian  Crab.  Native  of  eastern  Asia. 
A very  hardy  round  topped  tree  with  dense  foliage  and  numerous 
white  blossoms  which  appear  early  in  May.  Its  rapid  growth,  ability 
to  grow  in  all  kinds  of  soils  and  climates  and  fresh  appearance  make 
it  a very  valuable  tree  for  general  ornamental  planting  in  all  parts 
of  the  state. 

P.  coronara,  Linn.  Wild  Crab  Apple.  Native  of  the  central  and 
eastern  part  of  the  United  States  and  Canada.  A small  thorny  tree 
with  stiff  branches  and  dark  green  leaves  and  beautiful  rose  red 
blossoms  which  appear  in  May.  It  grows  well  on  all  kinds  of  soils 
but  prefers  rich  moist  for  the  best  development,  is  easily  transplanted 
and  readily  propagated  from  seed. 

P.  floribunda,  Nicols.  Flowering  Crab.  Native  of  Japan.  A 
small  tree  or  large  bush  with  dark  green  foliage  and  slender  wil- 


Bulletin  No.  90. — Forest,  Shade  and  Ornamental  Trees  41 


lowy  branches.  Early  in  May  this  plant  is  one  mass  of  pink  and 
white  blossoms  and  in  the  fall  covered  with  bright  yellow  fruits 
about  the  size  of  a pea.  It  grows  in  almost  any  kind  of  soil  and  read- 
ily adapts  itself  to  our  varied  conditions.  One  of  our  most  valuable 
ornamental  trees. 

P.  f.  Scheideckeri  Hort.  Scheidecker’s  Crab.  A dwarf  double 
flowered  horticultural  form  of  the  Flowering  Crab,  having  a dark 
pink  blossom  appearing  very  early  in  spring.  It  is  hardy,  does  well 
in  our  climate  and  is  very  ornamental  as  a flowering  plant. 

P.  fusca,  Raf.  Oregon  Crab.  Native  of  western  United  States 
and  Canada.  A medium  sized  tree  with  small  gray  green  leaves  and 
thorny  branches.  A useful  plant  for  moist  soils  but  of  slow  growth 
in  dry  hard  soil. 

P.  Soulardi,  Bailey,  Soulard  Crab.  A natural  hybrid  of  two  of 
our  American  crabs.  A strong  growing  round  topped  tree  with  erect 
branches  and  dark  green  foliage.  Its  hardy  nature,  numerous  pink 
blossoms  and  ability  to  grow  in  all  kinds  of  soil  make  it  a valuable 
plant  to  use  in  many  ways. 

P.  toringo,  Sieb.  Dwarf  Crab.  Native  of  Japan.  Small  spread- 
ing tree  or  large  shrub  with  pink  blossoms  and  fruit  the  size  of  a pea. 
A rapid  grower  on  moist  soil  but  slow  and  unsatisfactiry  on  hard  or 
dry  soil.  Useful  for  ornamental  planting. 

QUERCUS  alba,  Linn.  White  Oak.  Native  of  the  eastern  part  of 
the  United  States.  Under  favorable  conditions  of  soil  and  moisture 
this  is  one  of  the  best  timber  trees,  but  on  dry  soil  the  White  Oak 
has  not  been  a decided  success  in  our  tree  plots.  Its  slow  growth 
and  occasional  killing  back  makes  it  unsuitable  for  permanent  plant- 
ings. However,  under  other  conditions,  it  may  prove  a favorable 
tree  for  planting. 

Q.  coccinea,  Muench.  Scarlet  Oak.  Native  of  the  eastern  por- 
tion of  the  United  States.  A large  growing  tree  with  gradually 
spreading  limbs,  valuable  for  shade,  ornamental  and  wood  lot  plant- 
ing. The  wood  is  strong,  heavy  and  coarse  grained  and  excellent  for 
fence  posts,  finishing  lumber,  etc.  The  Scarlet  Oak  has  made  a very 
rapid  growth  and  is  the  most  beautiful  autumn  coloring  tree  on  the 
grounds.  It  grows  best  in  moist  rich  soil  but  can  be  grown  very 
successfully  on  drier  soil.  A few  specimens  should  be  planted  in 
all  large  collections  to  give  the  autumn  coloring.  It  is  easily  pro- 
pagated from  acorns  planted  in  the  fall  as  soon  as  they  are  ripe  or 
by  stratifying  and  planting  early  in  the  spring. 

Q.  ilicifolia,  Wangh.  Scrub  Oak.  Native  of  the  eastern  part  of 
the  United  States.  A small  rapid  growing  shrubby  tree  with  dull 
green  foliage.  Adapted  to  dry  rocky  situations  and  useful  only  as  a 
screen  or  cover  for  hillsides  or  steep  banks. 


42 


State  College  Experiment  Station 


Q.  cuneata,  Wangh.  Spanish  Oak.  Native  of  the  southeastern 
part  of  the  United  States.  A rapid  growing,  medium  sized,  upright 
to  round  topped  tree  with  beautiful  dull  green  foliage  becoming 
bronzy  brown  early  in  the  fall.  It  grows  well  in  dry  soil  but  prefers 
the  rich  moist  soil  for  the  best  results.  One  of  our  best  Oaks.  Valu- 
able for  ornamental  as  well  as  forest  planting. 

Q.  imbricaria,  Miehx.  Shingle  Oak.  Native  of  the  southeast  and 
central  parts  of  the  United  States.  A medium  sized  to  pyramidal 
topped  tree  with  beautiful  dark  green  glossy  foliage  which  turns 
red  in  the  fall.  Its  symmetry  when  young  and  glossy  foliage  makes  it 
valuable  for  ornamental  planting,  especially  where  the  soil  is  moist. 

Q.  rubra.  Linn.  Red  Oak.  Native  of  the  eastern  part  of  the 
United  States  and  Canada.  A large  rapid  growing  round  topped  tree 
with  dull  green  foliage  which  turns  red  in  the  fall.  Grows  well  in 
almost  any  kind  of  soil  but  prefers  the  moist  soil  for  best  develop- 
ment. Valuable  for  forest  as  well  as  shade  planting. 

Q.  macrocarpa,  Miehx.  Bur  Oak.  Native  of  the  eastern  and 
central  United  States  and  eastern  Canada.  A large  spreading  tree 
with  dense  dark  green  foliage  and  coarse  corky  branches.  Of  rapid 
growth  on  moist  soil  but  slow  and  poor  on  dry  hard  soil.  A valu- 
able tree  for  forest  shade  and  ornamental  planting. 

Q.  palustris,  Linn.  Pin  Oak.  Native  of  eastern  and  central 
United  States.  A medium  sized  pyramidal  to  irregular  topped  tree 
with  dense  beautiful  foliage  which  colors  bright  red  in  the  fall.  Grows 
well  on  dry  soil  but  prefers  moist  for  its  best  development.  Useful 
for  shade  or  ornamental  planting. 

Q.  prinus,  Linn.  Chestnut  Oak.  Native  of  the  eastern  part  of 
the  United  States  and  Canada.  A large,  upright,  irregular  shaped 
top  tree,  often  seventy  and  occasionally  one  hundred  feet  high.  The 
Chestnut  Oak  has  made  a very  rapid  growth  with  us  and  appears  to 
withstand  drouth  remarkably  well.  In  the  fall  its  foliage  colors  up 
very  prettily,  making  it  especially  valuable  for  lawn  and  park  plant- 
ing. The  wood  is  very  valuable  for  all  purposes  requiring  strength 
and  lasting  powers. 

Q.  sessiliflora,  Salieb.  English  Oak.  Native  of  Europe  and  west- 
ern part  of  Asia.  In  its  native  country  under  forest  conditions  it 
is  a large,  upright,  irregular  topped  tree  with  stout  spreading  lat- 
eral branches.  In  our  plots  and  on  the  campus  it  has  become  very 
popular  on  account  of  its  rapid  growth,  very  pretty  foliage,  which 
frequently  remains  on  until  spring,  and  low  branching  habit,  mak- 
ing it  an  ideal  tree  for  specimen  as  well  as  group  planting.  It  ap- 
pears to  be  hardy  and  has  made  very  satisfactory  growth  upon  dry 
soils  as  well  as  on  moist  or  rich  soil.  By  careful  pruning  it  can  be 
made  to  take  on  a beautiful  tree  form  and  to  branch  from  the  ground 


Bulletin  No.  90. — Forest,  Shade  and  Ornamental  Trees  43 


up  to  the  top.  It  is  propagated  by  either  planting  the  acorns  as  soon 
as  they  are  ripe  in  the  fall  or  by  stratifying  them  in  moist  sand  and 
planting  very  early  in  the  spring. 

Q.  velutina,  Lam.  Black  Oak.  Native  of  the  central  and  east- 
ern part  of  the  United  States.  A large  rapid  growing  upright  tree 
with  slender  branches  and  dark  green  foliage  which  turns  brown  in 
the  fall.  It  does  well  on  dry  soils  and  makes  a valuable  tree  for 
general  planting. 

ROBINIA  Pseudacacia,  Linn.  Black  Locust,  Yellow  Locust  or  Lo- 
cust. Native  of  the  eastern  part  of  the  United  States.  A tall  slender 
upright  growing  tree  with  light  attractive  foliage  and  fragrant  white 
or  purple  blossoms  which  hang  in  long  racemes  in  May  or  June.  One 
of  our  most  valuable  shade  and  wood  lot  trees  since  it  is  a very  rapid 
grower,  withstands  severe  drouth  and  is  almost  if  not  perfectly 
hardy.  The  wood  is  hard,  fine  grained  and  very  heavy.  It  is  valu- 
able for  fuel,  fence  pests,'  etc.  The  Black  Locust  is  easily  propagat- 
ed by  seeds  or  by  removing  sprouts  which  spring  up  so  readily  near 
the  old  trees.  The  seeds  should  be  gathered  in  the  fall  or  winter 
and  kgpt  dry  until  the  following  spring.  When  the  soil  is  ready  soak 
the  seeds  in  hot  water,  this  will  cause  most  of  them  to  swell  to  sev- 
eral times  their  natural  size.  These  should  be  sifted  or  picked  out 
and  the  remainder  soaked  again  in  hot  water.  This  process  of 
scalding  should  be  continued  until  all  have  started  to  swell;  then  the 
seed  maybe  planted  in  rows  much  the  same  as  peas,  and  by  fall  they 
will  have  grown  into  nice  little  trees.  One  of  its  disadvantages  is  that 
the  seed  pods  remain  on  the  tree  the  year  around  and  make  it  rather 
unsightly  during  the  spring  and  early  summer. 

SALIX  alba,  Linn.  White  Willow.  Native  of  the  northern  part  of 
Europe  and  Asia.  A large  rapid  growing  tree  with  short  trunk  and 
many  lateral  branches.  It  may  profitably  be  used  as  an  ornamental 
plant  where  a quick  growth  is  desired  or  as  a nurse  tree,  but  its  chief 
value  is  in  its  use  as  a wind-break  or  wood  lot  tree.  In  moist  rich 
land  it  produces  large  quantities  of  valuable  fuel,  provided  it  is  cured 
under  cover.  The  White  Willow  is  easily  propagated  from  cuttings 
planted  either  in  the  fall  after  the  leaves  have  fallen  or  in  the  spring 
before  growth  is  resumed. 

S.  Babylonica  dolorosa,  Rowen.  Wisconsin  Weeping  Willow. 
A horticultural  variety  of  the  Napoleon  Willow  with  long 
slender,  pendulous  branches  and  beautiful  glossy  foliage.  Under  fav- 
orable conditions  of  soil  and  moisture  it  makes  a very  pretty  tree  but 
it  is  not  perfectly  hardy  since  an  occasional  winter  will  kill  it  back 
at  least  to  the  main  stem.  It  is  easily  propagated  from  cuttings. 

S.  blanda.  Smooth  Willow.  Native  of  Europe.  A large  rapid 
growing  tree  with  thick  trunk  and  numerous  branches.  Useful  in 


44 


State  College  Experiment  Station 


wind-breaks,  wood  lot  plantings  and  as  an  ornamental  plant.  Es- 
pecially valuable  where  quick  growth  is  desired. 

S.  cordata,  Muhl.  Diamond  Willow.  Native  of  many  parts  of 
North  America.  A small  shrubby  tree  with  short  trunk  and  rigid 
branches.  Of  very  little  value  in  this  country. 

S.  discolor,  Muhl.  Pussy  Willow.  Native  of  eastern  North  Amer- 
ica. A small  rapid  growing  shrubby  tree.  Worthy  of  cultivation. 
Valuable  in  dry  as  well  as  moist  soil. 

S.  elegantissima,  Koch.  Thurlows  Weeping  Willow.  Native  of 
Japan.  A beautiful  slender  growing  weeping  tree  with  gray  green 
foliage  and  light  willowy  branches!  One  of  our  hardiest  and  most 
rapid  growing  weeping  trees.  It  is  easily  propagated  from 
cuttings  taken  while  the  tree  is  dormant. 

S.  lucida,  Muhl.  Glossy  Willow.  Native  of  eastern  North  Amer- 
ica. A low  rapid  growing  bushy  tree  with  brown  branches  and  dark 
green  glossy  foliage.  Very  attractive  as  an  ornamental  plant. 

S.  nigra,  Marshall.  Black  Willow.  Native  of  eastern  North 
America.  A small  rapid  growing  tree  rarely  used  ornamentally  but 
of  value  for  fuel  purposes. 

S.  pentrandra.  Linn.  Laurel-leaf  Willow.  Native  of  Europe 
and  Asia.  A small  tree  or  large  bush  eight  to  twenty  feet  high.  The 
leaves  are  of  dark  green  color  and  very  glossy,  making  it  attractive 
as  a lawn  or  park  plant.  The  twigs  are  of  a dark  reddish  brown 
color  and  also  glossy.  The  Laurel-leaf  Willow  is  not  especially  valu- 
able for  wood  purposes  but  may  be  used  as  a hedge  or  wind-break. 
It  is  easily  propagated  from  cuttings. 

S.  sericea,  Marsh.  Silky  Willow.  Native  of  eastern  part  of  North 
America.  A small  spreading  tree  with  silky  leaves.  Valuable  only 
as  an  ornamental  plant. 

S.  viminalis,  Linn.  Osier  Willow.  Native  of  Europe  and  Asia. 
A very  rapid  growing  plant  with  long  slender  branches.  WThen  cut 
annually  these  shoots  are  from  five  to  six  feet  in  length  and  very 
slender  indicating  value  for  basket  purposes. 

S.  vitt^llina,  Linn.  Golden  Willow.  Native  of  various  parts  of 
the  United  States.  A large  round  topped  tree  with  a thick  short 
trunk.  It  is  valuable  for  shade,  wind-breaks,  hedges  and  wood  lot 
purposes,  but  especially  useful  for  ornamental  planting  where  a win- 
ter effect  is  desirable.  As  a hedge  plant  it  survives  severe  pruning 
remarkably  well.  The  bright  golden  yellow  of  its  young  branches 
produces  a striking  contrast  to  the  dull  gray  or  brown  twigs  of  num- 
erous other  trees  and  shrubs.  The  Golden  Willow  grows  fairly  well 
on  dry  land  but  makes  the  best  growth  upon  moist  rich  soil.  It  is 
easily  propagated  from  cuttings. 


Bulletin  No.  90. — Forest,  Shade  and  Ornamental  Trees  45 


SORBUS  Americana,  Marsh.  American  Mountain  Ash.  Native  of 
the  north  and  eastern  parts  of  the  United  States.  A rapid  growing 
small  tree  to  large  shrub,  occasionally  attaining  thirty  or  more  feet 
in  height.  By  careful  pruning  it  may  be  trained  to  a single  stem, 
but  our  most  attractive  and  best  specimens  are  composed  of  from 
five  to  seven  stems  pruned  to  umbrella  form.  The  foliage  is  dark 
green  and  beautiful.  The  flowers  are  very  showy  the  latter  part  of 
May  or  early  in  June,  and  the  fruit  makes  it  a general  favorite  from 
July  until  October.  The  American  Mountain  Ash  is  very  valuable 
as  an  ornamental  tree  for  lawn  and  park  planting  and  the  seedling 
are  now  occasionally  being  used  to  graft  apples  upon  instead  of  apple 
stocks.  It  is  easily  grown  from  seed  gathered  and  cleaned  in  the  fall 
and  stratified  until  the  second  spring  as  very  few  seeds  will  germin- 
ate the  first  year  after  maturing. 

S.  aucuparia,  Linn.  European  Mountain  Ash.  Native  of  Europe 
and  Asia.  A small  rapid  growing  round  headed  tree  from  forty  to 
sixty  feet  high  somewhat  resembling  the  American  Mountain  Ash 
but  usually  retaining  its  leaves  and  fruit  later  in  the  season.  The 
European  Mountain  Ash  is  especially  ornamental  and  may  be  profit- 
ably used  where  a small  tree  is  desired.  Its  flowers  in  May  and 
June,  beautiful  light  grf>en  foliage  and  bright  red  fruit  all  add  to  its 
charms.  It  is  propagated  in  the  same  manner  as  the  American  Moun- 
tain Ash. 

S.  sambucifolia,  Roem.  Western  Mountain  Ash.  Native  from 
Labrador  to  Alaska  and  south  to  Pennsylvania  to  Michigan.  Also 
found  in  Europe  and  Asia.  A very  attractive  small  tree  or  large  shrub 
from  twenty  to  thirty  feet  high.  It  is  adapted  for  ornamental  plant- 
ing when  a small  tree  is  desirable.  The  large  clusters  of  white  flow- 
ers and  bright  red  berries  of  autumn  make  it  a general  favorite. 

S.  hybrida,  Linn.  Oak-leaved  Mountain  Ash.  A European  hy- 
brid of  two  forms  found  in  that  country.  It  is  a small  compact  up- 
right tree  often  attaining  thirty  or  more  feet  in  height.  In  our  plots 
it  has  made  a rapid  growth,  appears  perfectly  hardy  and  withstands 
drouth  remarkably  well.  The  Oak-leaved  Mountain  Ash  may  be  used 
the  same  as  the  other  forms  of  this  group. 

TIL1A  Americana,  Linn.  Basswood  or  American  Linden.  Native 
of  the  eastern  part  of  North  America.  A medium  to  large  round 
topped  tree  with  beautiful  light  green  foliage  and  fragrant  blos- 
soms which  appear  early  in  June.  Its  rapid  growth,  freedom  from 
pests,  fragrant  flowers  and  ability  to  adapt  itself  to  natural  condi- 
tions make  it  one  of  our  most  useful  shade  and  forest  trees. 

T.  heterophylla,  Vent.  Native  of  eastern  part  of  the  United 
States.  A large  rapid  growing  tree  with  light  green  leaves  and  fra- 
grant flowers.  This  tree  resembles  the  American  Basswood,  but  is 


46 


State  College  Experiment  Station 


of  a more  rapid  growth  and  has  larger  leaves.  Useful  for  shade  and 
ornamental  planting. 

T.  vulgaris,  Hayne.  .European  Linden,  European  Basswood. 
Native  of  northern  Europe.  Under  forest  conditions  it  develops  into 
a large  round  topped  tree  often  ninety  or  more  feet  in  height.  On 
the  campus  and  in  our  tree  plots  it  is  one  of  our  most  attractive 
trees.  Its  compact  conical  form  when  grown  as  a specimen  with 
limbs  to  the  ground,  or  the  dense  round  topped  tree  when  pruned 
up  is  always  admired.  The  leaves  are  showy  and  remain  on  long 
after  most  other  trees  have  lost  their  leaves.  When  in  blossom  it  is 
very  fragrant  and  valuable  as  a honey  plant.  While  not  especially 
valuable  as  a wood  producing  tree,  yet  as  a small  shade  tree  or  a 
beautiful  lawn  specimen  it  has  few  equals.  It  is  rather  difficult  to 
propagate  since  it  requires  two  years  to  get  the  seed  to  germinate, 
but  it  may  be  grown  from  layers  or  even  cuttings  of  the  young  wood 
if  they  are  carefully  calloused  before  planting. 

ULMUS  Americana,  Linn.  White  Elm,  American  Elm.  Native  of 
practically  all  parts  of  the  United  States  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 
A tall  usually  upright  but  variable  tree,  often  attaining  one  hundred 
and  twenty  feet  or  more  in  height  in  forest  conditions.  A collection 
of  American  Elms  usually  show  a wide  range  of  forms  from  stiff 
upright  “Vase”  form  to  the  beautiful  “Feathery  Fringed”  or  “Pendu- 
lous” forms.  In  moist  places  the  American  Elm  is  a very  valuable 
shade,  ornamental  and  forest  tree,  but  from  our  experiments  it  does 
not  appear  to  be  adapted  to  our  soil  and  conditions  on  account  of  be- 
ing so  seriously  molested  by  plant  aphis.  Our  specimens  have  made 
a fair  growth  and  in  most  ways  valuable.  It  may  be  propagated 
from  seeds  sown  as  soon  as  they  are  ripe  which  is  usually  the  early 
part  of  June. 

U.  racemosa,  Thomas.  Cork  Elm,  Rock  Elm.  Native  of  north- 
eastern and  central  portions  of  the  United  States.  A large,  oblong  to 
round  topped  tree,  often  attaining  eighty  to  one  hundred  feet  in 
height.  Usually  not  so  rapid  a grower  as  the  American  Elm  but 
nevertheless  a valuable  tree  for  Washington.  Our  specimens  are 
small  but  very  fine,  clean  rapid  growing  trees.  The  peculiar  corky 
wings  on  the  young  limbs  make  this  tree  especially  attractive  in  win- 
ter. The  Cork  Elm  transplants  easily  and  is  readily  propagated 
from  seeds  sown  as  soon  as  they  are  ripe. 

U.  scabra,  Mill.  Scotch  Elm.  Native  of  Europe  and  Asia.  A 
large  upright  tree  often  growing  one  hundred  or  more  feet  in  height. 
It  is  almost  as  variable  as  the  American  Elm  in  form  and  even  more 
so  in  color  of  foliage.  The  Scotch  Elm  is  especially  valuable  in 
Washington  as  a shade  and  ornamental  tree.  Our  specimens  have 
made  a very  rapid,  healthy,  clean  growth  and  thus  far.  have  been 


Bulletin  No.  90. — Forest,  Shade  and  Ornamental  Trees  47 


practically  free  from  all  forms  of  insect  pests  so  common  to  the 
American  Elm.  The  leaves  of  this  tree  are  especially  attractive,  be- 
ing large  dark  green  and  very  rugose.  It  is  easily  propagated  from 
seed  sown  soon  as  they  are  ripe. 

EVERGREENS 

ABIES  balsamea,  Mill.  Balsam  Fir.  Native  of  the  northeastern 
part  of  the  United  States  and  the  eastern  part  of  Canada.  Under 
favorable  conditions  this  is  a tall  slender  tree  with  short  horizontal 
branches.  It  does  not  appear  to  do  as  well  in  the  West  as  it  does  in 
the  East,  yet  is  is  possible  to  grow  beautiful  specimens  here.  On 
moist  rich  soil  it  makes  a rapid  growth  producing  a very  attractive 
lawn  tree,  while  on  dry  soil  it  is  slow  and  occasionally  produces  an 
unsightly,  scrubby  looking  tree.  The  Balsam  Fir  varies  in  color 
from  a dark  green  to  a silvery  white.  In  ornamental  planting  one 
usually  desires  the  silvery  specimens. 

A.  grandis,  Lindl.  Native  of  the  western  part  of  the  United  States 
and  British  Columbia.  A very  tall  slender  growing  forest  tree  fre- 
quently attaining  three  hundred  feet  in  height  and  logs  four  feet  in 
diameter.  Under  favorable  conditions  of  soil  and  moisture  it  is  a 
rapid  grower  in  this  locality  and  soon  makes  a very  beautiful  lawn 
or  forest  specimen.  It  is  easy  to  transplant  and  soon  recovers  from 
the  shock.  Specimens,  as  in  many  other  conifers,  vary  greatly  as  to 
their  beauty.  The  more  silvery  specimens  being  sought  for  as  lawn 
trees.  While  it  is  not  entirely  hardy  alone  it  does  nicely  in  groups 
of  trees. 

JUNIPER  communis,  Linn.  Irish  Juniper,  Common  Juniper.  A 
small  pyramidal  tree  of  compact  habit  and  dense  silvery  gray  to  dark 
green  foliage.  It  is  extensively  used  for  ornamental  hedge  purposes 
since  it  stands  severe  pruning  remarkably  well.  While  it  prefers 
moist  soil  it  does  fairly  well  on  dry  soil.  The  Juniper  is  rather  low 
for  wind-break  purposes,  but  it  makes  a nice  small  ornamental  tree 
for  parks  and  lawns.  It  is  easily  transplanted  but  propagated  with 
more  or  less  difficulty  from  seeds  and  cuttings. 

J.  Virginiana,  Linn.  Red  Cedar,  Juniper.  Native  of  practically 
all  parts  of  the  United  States  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  The  Red 
Cedar  varies  from  a bushy  plant  in  the  North  to  a medium'  sized  tree 
in  the  South.  It  is  extensively  used  for  hedges,  wind-breaks  and 
lawn  trees,  being  a rapid  grower  when  young  but  slower  when  it  is 
older.  The  Red  Cedar  grows  fairly  well  in  almost  any  soil  but  nat- 
urally prefers  a moist  rich  soil.  It  transplants  readily  but  is  diffi- 
cult to  propagate  since  the  seed  requires  two  years  to  germinate. 


48 


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LARIX  Americana,  Michx.  Tamarack,  American  Larch.  Native 
of  the  north  and  northeastern  part  of  the  United  States  and  of  the 
southeastern  part  of  Canada.  A tall  slender  rapid  growing  forest 
tree  for  moist  or  swampy  lands  but  not  valuable  for  high  dry  soils. 
It  may  be  advantageously  used  in  low  places  for  ornamental  plant- 
ing since  its  beautiful  light  green  foliage  is  very  attractive  in  early 
spring  and  again  its  light  yellow  foliage  of  late  autumn  contrasts 
beautifully  with  the  dark  green  of  the  pines  and  spruces.  It  is  easily 
transplanted  if  set  before  growth  sets  in  in  the  spring. 

L.  decidua,  Mill.  European  Larch.  Native  of  central  part  of  Eu- 
rope. A medium  sized  slender  tree  often  with  a more  or  less  droop- 
ing habit  to  its  limbs.  Like  the  American  Larch  it  prefers  moist, 
rich  soil  but  will  stand  drier  soils  better  than  the  American  Larch. 
It  is  valuable  for  forest  planting,  wind-breaks  and  ornamental  plant- 
ing. In  the  eastern  states  it  is  used  extensively  for  ornamental 
and  wind-break  purposes.  As  a lawn  tree  it  soon  becomes  very  beau- 
tiful and  graceful  either  for  specimen  or  group  planting.  The  Eu- 
ropean Larch  is  a much  more  rapid  grower  than  the  American  Larch 
and  so  for  this  reason  should  be  substituted  for  it. 

PICEA  alba,  Link.  White  Spruce.  Native  from  Labrador  to 
Alaska,  and  south  to  Montana  and  New  York.  A medium  to  large 
pyramidal  tree  with  dense  horizontal  branches  and  occasionally  pen- 
dant branchlets  which  make  it  very  valuable  for  ornamental  plant- 
ing. The  foliage  varies  from  light  green  to  bluish  green  or  even 
dark  green.  Our  specimens  have  made  a rapid  growth  and  seem  to 
withstand  drouth  remarkably  well.  The  White  Spruce  is  also  valu- 
able for  wind-break  purposes  and  wood  lot  planting.  It  is  propagated 
from  seed. 

P.  alba,  var.,  Black  Hills  Spruce,  a natural  variety  or  closely  al- 
lied species  of  P.  alba,  found  native  in  the  Black  Hills  region.  It 
is  a medium  to  a large  pyramidal  tree  with  dense  stiff  foliage  and 
strong  upright  branches.  Its  extreme  hardiness  and  ability  to  with- 
stand our  long  dry  summers  make  it  more  valuable  for  utility  plant- 
ing than  the  true  P.  alba,  while  its  compact  form  and  silver  speci- 
mens make  it  a valuable  plant  for  ornamental  planting.  Carefully 
selected  specimens  of  this  species  are  frequently  sold  at  high  prices 
for  the  much  prized  Colorado  Blue.  The  Black  Hills  Spruce  is  easily 
transplanted  and  readily  propagated  from  seed. 

P.  Engelmanni,  Engelm.  Engelman’s  Spruce.  Native  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains  from  Arizona  to  British  Columbia.  A tall  pyra- 
midal tree  with  slender  branches  closely  arranged  so  as  to  form  a 
very  compact  tree.  It  has  the  stiff  foliage  and  frequently  the  glac- 
ous  color  of  the  Colorado  Blue  Spruce  and  so  frequently  sold  for  this 
species  being  more  common  and  hence  easily  obtained.  The  Engel- 


Bulletin  No.  90. — Forest,  Shade  and  Ornamental  Trees  49 


man’s  Spruce  is  perfectly  hardy,  withstands  severe  drouth  and  is 
very  ornamental  for  either  specimen  or  group  planting.  It  is  fre- 
quently used  for  hedges  since  it  stands  shearing  remarkably  well  and 
its  density  makes  it  valuable  for  wind-breaks.  Propagated  from  seed. 

P.  excelsa,  Link.  Norway  Spruce.  Native  of  Europe.  A tall 
growing  tree  with  dense  dark  green  foliage,  stiff  horizontal  branches 
and  usually  pendulous  branchlets  which  sweep  the  ground.  It  is  a 
rapid  grower  and  when  given  room  makes  a very  handsome  sym- 
metrical tree.  Like  most  spruces  it  begins  to  get  ragged  soon  after 
thirty  years  of  age.  Its  ease  of  propagation  and  rapid  growth  have 
caused  it  to  be  planted  probably  more  than  any  other  evergreen  tree 
for  ornamental  purposes,  but  it  is  also  valuable  for  shelter  belts, 
hedges  and  wind-breaks.  It  is  readily  propagated  from  seeds  sown 
early  in  spring. 

P.  nigra,  Link.  Black  Spruce.  Native  of  the  northern  part  of 
the  United  States  and  Canada.  A small  slender,  irregular  shaped  tree, 
usually  with  slender  pendulous  branches.  It  is  not  a rapid  grower 
and  should  be  used  only  on  wet,  cool  soils.  The  Black  Spruce  is  not 
desirable  for  ornamental  purposes  as  it  soon  loses  its  lower  limbs 
and  becomes  unsightly. 

P.  pungens,  Engelm.  Colorado  Blue  Spruce.  Native  of  Wyom- 
ing, Colorado  and  Utah.  A dense  pyramidal  tree  from  one  hundred 
to  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  in  height  with  foliage  varying  from 
dark  green  to  silvery  gray.  It  is  undoubtedly  the  most  ornamental 
and  most  highly  prized  of  all  evergreens.  The  silver  specimens  sell 
for  fancy  prices,  while  trees  from  the  same  lot  of  seed  only  of  a 
green  color  sell  at  moderate  prices.  After  once  becoming  establish- 
ed it  withstands  severe  drouth  and  all  kinds  of  neglect  with  remark- 
ably persistency.  As  a specimen  plant  for  lawns,  parks,  etc.,  the 
Colorado  Blue  Spruce  has  few,  if  any,  equals.  The  species  may  be 
easily  propagated  from  seed,  but  rare,  silver  individuals  must  be 
grafted  or  started  from  cuttings. 

P.  flexilis,  James.  Western  White  Pine.  Native  of  the  mountain 
ranges  of  the  western  part  of  the  United  States  and  Canada.  A small 
slender,  rather  slow  growing  pine,  resembling  the  White  Pine  in 
many  ways.  It  frequently  becomes  open  and  round  topped  in  old  age 
and  is  especially  adapted  for  ornamental  planting  on  rocky  situa- 
tions or  where  the  soil  is  shallow.  It  may  be  propagated  by  seeds 
in  practically  the  same  manner  as  other  pines. 

P.  contorto,  Dougl.  Scrub  Pine.  Native  of  the  western  part  of 
the  United  States  and  Canada.  A tree  that  varies  from  twenty  to 
one  hundred  feet  in  height  and  from  a close,  compact,  pryamidal 
headed  tree  to  a loose  round  topped  tree.  It  grows  on  practically  all 
kinds  of  soil  but  usually  prefers  rich,  moist  soil.  The  Scrub  Pine  is 


50 


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perfectly  hardy  and  while  not  a rapid  grower  it  soon  forms  a good 
wind-break  or  an  attractive  group  for  ornamental  planting.  It  has 
many  of  the  characteristics  of  the  Jack  Pine  and  is  frequently  mis- 
taken for  it. 

P.  divaricata,  Dum.  Jack  Pine.  Native  of  the  northern  part  of 
the  United  States  and  north  into  Canada  to  the  Arctic  Circle.  A 
small  to  medium  sized  tree  from  fifty  to  one  hundred  feet  high.  Of 
a very  irregular,  ragged  growth,  which  makes  it  undesirable  for 
ornamental  planting.  The  young  specimens  are  pretty  but  they  soon 
become  open  and  unattractive.  It  is  the  hardiest  native  pine  on  the 
continent  and  while  it  prefers  moist,  rich  soil  it  will  grow  fairly  well 
on  dry,  poor  soils.  The  Jack  Pine  is  very  hard  to  transplant  unless 
small  specimens  be  taken.  It  can  be  profitably  used  in  wind-breaks, 
shelter-belts  and  wood  lots,  since  the  wood  may  be  substituted  for 
Red  Pine  either  for  lumber  or  fuel.  The  cones  have  the  peculiarity 
of  remaining  on  the  tree  for  from  twelve  to  fifteen  years. 

P.  laricio.  Poir.  Austrian  Pine.  Native  of  Europe  and  Asia. 
A tall,  rapid  growing  pyramidal  tree  from  one  hundred  to  one  hun- 
dred and  fifty  feet  in  height  with  dense,  long  dark  green  leaves  and 
strong  spreading  branches  in  regular  whorls.  It  is  a valuable  tree 
for  wind-breaks,  shelter-belts,  and  wood  lot  plantations  and  where  a 
coarse,  heavy  pine  is  desired  it  may  be  profitably  used  for  orna- 
mental planting.  The  specimens  on  the  campus  are  very  attractive 
and  have  always  made  satisfactory  growths.  Small  trees  are  very 
easily  transplanted  and  while  the  species  favors  moist,  rich  soil,  yet 
it  does  well  upon  dry  or  even  rocky  soils. 

P.  Montana  mugus,  Willk.  Dwarf  Mountain  Pine.  Native  of  Eu- 
rope. A small  dwarf,  compact  tree  seldom  growing  more  than  thirty 
feet  high.  As  a shade  or  wood  producing  tree  it  is  comparatively 
worthless,  but  it  is  highly  prized  for  ornamental  purposes.  It  seems 
to  be  perfectly  hardy  and  produces  a neat  and  attractive  specimen 
for  lawn  or  park  planting. 

P.  Ponderosa,  Dougl.  Yellow  Pine,  Bull  Pine.  Native  of  the 
western  part  of  the  United  States  and  Canada.  One  of  the  tallest 
and  most  important  trees  of  the  west.  It  frequently  attains  two 
hundred  to  three  hundred  feet  in  height  and  is  a very  valuable  lum- 
ber tree.  Under  favorable  conditions  it  is  a rapid  grower,  trans- 
plants fairly  easy,  and  is  very  ornamental  from  early  life  to  maturity. 

P.  sylvestris,  Linn.  Scotch  Pine.  Native  of  Europe.  A rather 
large,  rapid  growing,  hardy  tree,  frequently  attaining  one  hundred 
and  twenty  feet  in  height.  When  young  it  is  compact  and  pyramidal 
in  form,  but  as  it  grows  older  it  takes  on  a round,  open  topped  form, 
and  early  in  life  becomes  unsightly  and  begins  to  die.  It  has  been 
used  extensively  on  the  plains  as  a wind-break,  shade  and  forest 


Bulletin  No.  90. — Forest,  Shade  and  Ornamental  Tree§  51 


tree,  and  while  not  entirely  satisfactory  for  ornamental  purposes  it 
serves  its  purpose  well. 

Pseudotsuga  Douglasii,  Carr.  Douglas  Spruce,  Douglas  Fir,  Red 
Fir.  Native  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  west  to  the  Pacific  Ocean. 
A very  large  pyramidal  tree  from  two  hundred  to  three  hundred  feet 
in  height  and  occasionally  twelve  feet  in  diameter  at  the  base  of  the 
trunk.  This  tree  is  rapidly  becoming  one  of  the  most  popular,  if  not 
the  most  widely  planted,  trees  of  the  conifer  group.  It  is  a rapid 
grower  and  soon  makes  a very  graceful,  highly  ornamental  tree.  If 
planted  far  apart  or  as  specimens  and  the  full  effect  of  its  good  color 
and  soft  foliage  is  secured  by  group  planting.  The  Douglas  Spruce 
is  very  variable  in  habit  from  long  to  short  leaves,  light  to  green 
foliage  of  from  a bluish  to  a silvery  gray  colors.  It  is  easily  trans- 
planted if  small  trees  from  the  open  woods  be  taken,  but  like  all  coni- 
fers, its  roots  must  never  become  dry.  While  it  would  make  the  best 
wind-break  alone,  yet  with  other  trees  it  would  be  valuable  for  this 
purpose  as  well  as  for  ornamental  and  wood  lot  planting. 

Thuya  gigantea,  Nutt.  Giant  Cedar.  Native  of  the  western  coast 
of  North  America  from  Alaska  to  Northern  California.  A tall  up- 
right growing  tree  with  slightly  pendulous  branches  and  a very  at- 
tractive foliage.  This  is  considered  one  of  the  most  beautiful  native 
evergreen  trees  of  the  United  States  and  while  it  is  not  wholly  adapt- 
ed to  general  planting,  yet  can  be  profitably  used  in  moist  or  pro- 
tected situations.  The  Giant  Cedar  is  not  difficult  to  transplant  and 
is  usually  propagated  from  seed,  but  may  be  multiplied  by  cuttings 
taken  during  the  winter. 

T.  occidentalis,  Linn.  Arborvitae,  White  Cedar.  Native  of  the 
northeastern  part  of  the  United  States,  extending  as  far  west  as 
South  Dakota  and  as  far  south  as  North  Carolina.  A conical  shaped 
tree  from  fifty  to  seventy  feet  in  height.  If  left  to  grow  unpruned 
it  is  of  a loose,  graceful  habit,  but  it  can  be  made  to  form  a dense 
compact  tree  by  systematic  pruning.  It  grows  well  on  moist  soil 
but  is  usually  poor  on  dry  soil.  The  Arborvitae  is  a general  favor- 
ite for  ornamental  hedge  planting  or  an  occasional  specimen  on  lawns 
or  parks.  Where  it  can  be  grown  as  a forest  tree  it  is  usually  of  a 
rapid  growth  and  the  wood  is  valuable  for  telegraph  poles,  fence 
posts,  pails,  tubs,  etc.  It  is  rather  difficult  to  propagate  from  seed 
but  can  be  grown  from  cuttings. 

T.  O.,  var.  Ellwangeriana.  Tom  Thumb  Arborvitae. . A dwarf 
horticultural  variety  of  the  common  arborvitae  with  two  distinct 
kinds  of  foliage  making  it  desirable  for  ornamental  planting.  It  is 
a very  slow  grower,  frequently  not  averaging  more  than  an  inch  per 
year.  It  is  readily  propagated  from  cuttings  taken  during  the  win- 
ter and  is  easily  transplanted. 


Twelve  Years'  Growth  of  European  Linden 


Suggested  Trees  for  Special  Planting 


I.  LARGE,  RAPID  GROWING  TREES  FOR  STREET 
AND  SHADE 


1.  Black  Locust  . . 

2.  Carolina  Poplar 

3.  Silver  Poplar  . . 

4.  Cottonwood  . . . 

5.  Oregon  Maple  . . 


Robinia  pseudacacia 
. . Populus  deltoides 

Populus  alba 

. . Populus  deltoides 
Acer  macrophyllum* 


II.  LARGE,  MEDIUM  GROWING  TREES  FOR  STREET 
AND  SHADE: 


1.  Norway  Maple  . . 
2 Sycamore  Maple  . 

3.  Silver  Maple 

4.  Flowering  Ash  . . 

5.  Green  Ash 

6.  Box  Elder 

7.  Hackberry  

8.  Black  Walnut  . . 

9.  Scarlet  Oak  .... 

10.  English  Maple  . 

11.  English  Oak 

12.  Scotch  Elm 

13.  European  Linden 

14.  Horse  Chestnut  . 


Acer  platanoides 

. . . Acer  pseudo-platanus 

Acer  saccharinum 

Fraxinus  ornus 

. . . Fraxinus  lanceolata 

Acer  negundo 

. . . . Celtis  occidentalis 

Juglans  nigra 

Quercus  coccinea 

Acer  campestris 

Quercus  sessiliflora 

Ulmus  scabra 

Tilia  vulgaris 

Aesculus  hippocastanum 


54 


State  College  Experiment  Station 


1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

6. 

7. 

8. 
9. 

10. 

11. 

12. 

13. 

14. 

15. 

16. 
17. 


1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

6. 

7. 

8. 
9. 

10. 


1. 

2. 


III.  DECIDUOUS  TREES  FOR  LAWN  PLANTING: 

Cut-leaved  Weeping  Birch  . .Betula  alba  pendula  laciniata 

English  Maple  Acer  campestris 

Wier’s  Cut-leaved  White  Maple.  .Acer  saccharinum  Wierii 
laciniatum 

European  Linden  Tilia  vulgaris 

American  Hornbeam Carpinus  Caroliniana 

Japanese  Chestnut  Castanea  crenata 

Flowering  Ash  Fraxinus  ornus 

English  Oak * Quercus  sessilflora 

Scarlet  Oak Quercus  coccinea 

American  Mountain  Ash  Sorbus  Americana 

Bolles  Poplar Populus  alba  bolleana 

Lombardy  Poplar Populus  nigra  Italica 

European  Larch  Larix  Europea 

Golden  Willow  Salix  vittellina 

White  Birch  Betula  alba 

Red  Maple  Acer  rubrum 

Native  Thorn Crataegus  Douglassi 


IY.  EVERGREEN  TREES  FOR  LAWN  PLANTING: 


Colorado  Blue  Spruce 

Douglas  Fir  

Engleman’s  Spruce  .. 
Black  Hills  Spruce  . . 

Norway  Spruce  

Scotch  Pine  

Dwarf  Mountain  Pine 

Austrian  Pine  

Irish  Juniper 

Giant  Cedar  


Picea  pungens 

Pseudo-tsuga  Douglassi 

Picea  Englemanni 

Picea  alba,  var. 

Picea  excelsa 

Pinus  sylvestris 

. Pinus  Montana  Mugus 

Pinus  laricio 

Juniper  communis 

Thuya  gigantea 


Y.  THE  BEST  TREES  FOR  SINGLE  ROW  WIND- 
BREAKS OR  TALL  SCREENS: 

White  Willow  Salix  alba 

Lombardy  Poplar Populus  nigra,  Italica 


Bulletin  No.  90. — Forest,  Shade  and  Ornamental  Trees  55 


3.  Oregon  Maple 

4.  Box  Elder  . . , 

5.  Douglas  Fir  . , 

6.  Scotch  Pine  . . 

7.  Austrian  Pine 


. . Acer  macrophyllum* 

, _ Acer  negundo 

Pseudo-tsuga  Douglassi 

Pinus  sysvestris 

Pinus  laricio 


VI.  THE  BEST  TREES  FOR  SINGLE  ROW  WIND- 
BREAK OR  LOW  SCREEN : 


1.  English  Maple 

2.  Golden  Willow  . . . 
3 American  Hornbeam 

4.  Native  Thorn 

5.  Russian  Wild  Olive 

6.  Engleman’s  Spruce 

7.  White  Spruce  


Acer  campestris 

Salix  vittelina 

, Carpinus  Caroliniana 
. . Crataegus  Douglassi 
Elaeagnus  angustifolia 
. . . . Picea  Englemanni 
Picea  alba 


VII.  THE  BEST  TREES  TO  PLANT  FOR  FUEL 
PURPOSES:  * 


1.  White  Willow  

2.  European  Larch  

3.  Black  Locust 

4. Cottonwood  

5.  Austrian  Pine  

6.  White  Maple 

#For  west  of  the  Cascade  Mountains. 


Salix  blanda 

. . . Larix  Europea 
Robinia  pseudocacia 
. Populus  deltoides 

Pinus  lausico 

. Acer  saccharinum 


THE  STATE  COLLEGE  OF  WASHINGTON 


Agricultural  Experiment  Station 

Pullman,  Washington 
DEPARTMENT  OF  CHEMISTRY 


Wheat  and  Flour  Investigations 

(CROPS  OF  1906-7) 

By  R.  W.  THATCHER. 


Bulletin  No.  91 

1910 


All  Bulletins  of  this  Station  Sent  Free  to  Citizens  of  the  State 
on  Application  to  the  Director 


BOARD  OF  CONTROL 


R.  C.  McCROSKEY,  President  - - - -Garfield 

D.  S.  TROY,  Vice-President  - Chimacum 

E.  A.  BRYAN,  Secretary  Ex-Officio  - - - Pullman 

President  of  the  College. 

LEE  A.  JOHNSON Sunnyside 

J.  J.  BROWNE Spokane 

PETER  McGREGOR, - Colfax 


o 

STATION  STAFF 


R.  W.  THATCHER,  M.  A. 

ELTON  FULMER,  M.  A. 

S.  B.  NELSON,  D.  V.  M. 

O.  L.  WALLER,  Ph.  M.  - - 
R.  K.  BEATTIE,  A.  M. 
WALTER  S.  THORNBER,  M.  S. 
A.  L.  MELANDER,  M.  S. 
LEONARD  HEGNAUER,  M.  S., 
W.  H.  LAWRENCE,  M.  S. 
w.  t.  McDonald,  m.  s.  a., 

C.  C.  THOM,  M.  S.,  - 

H.  B.  HUMPHREY,  Ph.  D., 
ALEX  CARLYLE, 

W.  T.  SHAW,  B.  S., 

GEORGE  A.  OLSON,  M.  S., 

E.  L.  PETERSON,  B.  S., 

REX  N.  HUNT,  M.  S., 

W.  H.  HEIN,  M.  A., 

W.  L.  HADLOCK,  B.  S.,  - 

M.  A.  YATHERS,  B.  S.S.  - 


Director  and  Chemist 
State  Chemist 
V eterinarian 
Irrigation  Engineer 
Botanist 
Horticulturist 
Entomologist 
Agronomist 
Plant  Pathologist 
Animal  Husbandman 
Soil  Physicist 
- Plant  Pathologist 
- Cerealist 

- Assistant  Zoologist 

- Assistant  Chemist 
Assistant  Soil  Physicist 

Assistant  Botanist 
Assistant  Horticulturist 
Assistant  Chemist 
Assistant  Entomologist 


Wheat  and  Flour  Investigations 

(CROPS  OF  1906-7) 

BY  R.  W.  THATCHER 


The  Chemistry  Department  of  this  Station  has  in  progress 
a series  of  investigations  of  the  chemical  composition  and  mill- 
ing qualities  of  Washington  wheats.  These  investigations  have 
a two-fold  purpose.  One  important  object  is  to  ascertain  the 
comparative  value  for  flour  production  of  the  different  varie- 
ties of  wheat  which  are  now  being  grown  in  different  parts  of 
the  State.  This  is  a matter  of  both  scientific  and  practical 
interest  and  value,  and  if  once  definitely  established  may  serve 
several  important  purposes.  The  other  object  of  the  investi- 
gations is  to  discover,  if  possible,  the  causes  of  variations  in 
composition  of  wheat  and  to  utilize  the  knowledge  thus  gained 
in  improving  the  quality  of  the  grain  either  by  proper  breed- 
ing or  by  proper  control  of  the  influences  which  tend  to  cause 
deterioration  in  quality. 

It  is  obvious  that  a thorough  knowledge  of  the  composition 
of  the  grain  as  it  is  now  grown  is  the  first  and  fundamental 
step  in  these  investigations.  For  this  purpose,  it  was  planned 
to  collect  and  submit  to  complete  analytical  and  milling  tests 
typical  samples  of  all  the  varieties  commonly  grown,  from  each 
of  the  wheat-growing  districts  of  the  State,  for  five  successive 
years,  or  seasons.  It  is  believed  that  the  results  of  the  tests 
made  on  these  five  successive  crops,  grown  under  the  varying 
conditions  of  the  different  seasons  in  each  of  the  different  lo- 
calities, when  summarized  and  averaged,  will  give  a correct 
knowledge  of  the  average  composition  of  each  of  the  varie- 
ties studied,  and  of  the  variations  which  may  reasonably  be  ex- 
pected to  result  from  varying  conditions  under  which  the  same 
variety  is  grown. 

The  general  methods  of  securing  the  samples  and  of  testing 


4 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


them  in  the  Station  laboratories,  together  with  the  results  of 
the  first  year’s  tests,  on  samples  of  the  crop  of  1905,  have  been 
published  as  Bulletin  No.  84.  The  collection  of  samples  of  the 
crops  of  1906  and  1907  has  now  been  completed  and  the  re- 
sults are  recorded  in  this  bulletin.  It  is  proposed  to  present 
the  results  of  the  same  investigations  on  the  crops  of  1908  and 
1909,  together  with  a sumary  of  the  five  years’  work  and  final 
conclusions  which  may  be  drawn  from  it  in  a later  bulletin  to  be 
published  as  soon  as  the  investigations  can  be  completed. 

For  complete  details  of  the  methods  employed  in  these  in- 
vestigations, and  for  a general  discussion  of  the  principles  in- 
volved and  their  application  to  these  studies,  interested  readers 
are  referred  to  Bulletin  No.  84.  In  the  following  pages,  only 
such  brief  explanations  as  will  make  the  tables  intelligible,  to- 
gether with  short  descriptions  of  any  new  additions  to  or  modifi- 
cations of  the  methods  of  study,  are  presented. 

THE  CROP  OF  1906 

In  the  fall  of  1906,  those  millers,  warehousemen,  grain 
dealers,  and  farmers  who  had  furnished  samples  for  the  stud- 
ies of  the  crop  of  1905,  were  requested  to  submit  similar  sam- 
ples of  the  crop  of  1906,  and  in  most  cases  willingly  consented 
to  do  so.  Some  additional  co-operation  was  also  secured  from 
localities  not  formerly  represented.  Sacks,  blank  forms  for 
supplying  information  concerning  the  samples,  shipping  tags, 
and  directions  for  preparing  and  shipping  the  samples  were 
sent  out  from  the  Station  laboratory.  A total  of  ninety-two 
samples  were  received,  representing  twenty-one  different  ship- 
ping points  and  sixteen  different  varieties.  There  was  an 
easily  noticeable  disposition  on  the  part  of  the  persons  who 
sent  in  the  samples  to  select  those  varieties  which  are  commonly 
considered  to  be  of  higher  market  grade  as  the  typical  wheats 
of  their  locality,  so  that  the  total  number  of  samples  of  these 
varieties  is  greater  than  that  of  some  of  the  other  varieties  of 
lower  market  grade,  which  may  be  nearly  as  commonly  grown. 

The  harvest  of  1906  was  marked  by  very  hot  dt*y  weather 
and  much  of  the  grain  of  the  wheat-producing  portions  of  the 
State  did  not  mature  normally  and  was  more  or  less  shrunken. 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


5 


With  the  belief  that  these  conditions  afforded  an  excellent 
opportunity  of  studying  the  effect  of  rapid  maturity,  or  short- 
ened ripening  period,  upon  the  quality  of  the  grain,  and  the  re- 
lative value  of  plump  and  shrivelled  grain  for  milling  purposes 
several  of  the  persons  who  expressed  their  willingness  to  secure 
samples  for  the  work  were  requested  to  get  samples  of  plump, 
slightly  shrunken,  and  badly  shrivelled  grain  of  the  same  var- 
iety and  grown  in  the  same  locality,  if  possible. 

The  information  accompanying  each  sample,  together  with 
notes  aslo  its  condition  and  its  weight  per  bushel,  as  determined 
either  by  the  shipper  or  by  a laboratory  assistant,  are  given  in 
Table  I. 


TABLE  I.  DESCRIPTION  OF  SAMPLES— CROP  OF  1906 


6 Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


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TABLE  I.  DESCRIPTION  OE  SAMPLES— CROP  OF  1906— Continued 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  7 


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TABLE  i.  DESCRIPTION  OF  SAMPLES— CROP  OF  1906— Continued 


8 Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


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Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


9 


The  samples  are  arranged  in  the  table  in  the  order  in  which 
they  were  received  at  the  laboratory,  and  each  is  designated 
by  the  laboratory  number  which  was  assigned  to  it,  by  means  of 
which  it  may  be  identified  in  later  tables  in  this  bulletin.  The 
second,  third,  fourth  and  fifth  columns  show  the  variety,  grow- 
er’s name,  nearest  shipping  point  and  county  where  the  grain 
was  grown,  for  each  sample  concerning  which  this  data  was 
supplied  by  the  shipper.  The  sixth  column  contains  the  exact 
or  approximate  yield  per  acre  of  the  crop  from  which  the  sam- 
ple was  taken.  The  seventh  column  indicates  the  condition  of 
the  grain  as  observed  at  the  laboratory  “P”  signifying  plump; 
“SS,”  slightly  shrunken;  “S,”  shrunken;  and  “BS,”  badly 
shrivelled.  The  final  column  shows  the  test  weight  per  bushel 
as  determined  by  the  ordinary  Fairbanks  grain  grader. 

In  addition  to  these  samples  of  wheat  from  this  State  similar 
samples  were  also  secured  from  the  Agricultural  Department 
of  the  Experiment  Stations  in  several  of  the  great  wheat-grow- 
ing States  of  the  Mississippi  Valley.  In  each  case,  these  sam- 
ples were  received  in  response  to  a request  for  representative 
average  samples  of  the  varieties  of  wheat  most  commonly 
grown  in  that  particular  State.  These  were  secured  for  the 
purpose  of  submitting  them  to  the  same  tests  under  identically 
the  same  conditions  as  our  Washington  wheats  were  being  test- 
ed, in  order  that  the  composition  and  milling  quality  of  our 
grains  might  be  compared  with  those  grown  in  the  Mississippi 
Valley  States.  The  total  number  of  these  eastern  grown  wheats 
which  were  received  and  tested  was  twenty,  distributed  as 
follows:  Kansas,  five;  Illinois,  four;  North  Dakota,  and  South 
Dakota;  three  each;  Nebraska  and  Minnesota,  two  each 
and  Tennessee,  one.  An  additional  sample  from 
a miller  in  central  Nebraska,  and  one  from  central 
Ohio  were  also  received  and  submitted  to  similar  tests.  In  the 
main,  the  varieties  represented  by  these  Eastern  States  are 
different  than  those  collected  in  Washington,  so  that  the  com- 
parisons to  be  drawn  from  the  results  of  the  tests  cannot  be 
said  to  show  the  effects  of  the  different  conditions  existing  in 
these  several  States  upon  the  same  variety  of  wheat.  They  do, 
however,  afford  a basis  of  comparison  of  the  quality  and  compo- 


10 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


sition  of  the  prevailing  wheats  of  the  States  represented  with 
those  of  the  same  season’s  crop  grown  in  Washington.  It 
should,  perhaps,  be  mentioned  in  this  connection  that  the  Blue- 
stem  wheat  received  from  Minnesota  and  North  Dakota  is  a 
different  variety  from  that  known  by  the  same  name  in  this 
State,  the  former  being  a red,  small-berried  variety  originating 
in  Europe,  while  the  bluestem  of  the  Pacific  Coast  States  is  a 
white  large-berried  grain  originally  imported  from  Australia. 
It  is  intended  to  secure  similar  samples  of  Eastern  wheats  of 
other  season’s  growth,  for  similar  comparisons  with  Washing- 
ton wheats  of  the  same  season,  in  order  to  avoid  the  possibili- 
ties of  drawing  erroneous  conclusions  from  the  results  of  a 
single  year’s  samples. 

Results  of  the  Tests 

The  results  of  the  analyses  of  the  wheat,  the  percentages 
of  each  of  the  three  mill-products  (flour,  bran  and  shorts)  ob- 
tained in  the  experimental  milling  of  samples,  the  gluten  tests 
of  the  flour  in  each  case,  and  the  percentage  of  crude  protein 
found  in  the  bran,  shorts  and  flour  from  each  sample,  are  shown 
in  Table  II. 


TABLE  II.  RESULTS  OF  TESTS  ON  WASHINGTON  WHEATS— CROP  OF  1906 


Sample 

No. 

OO  US 

OOF-t'OOaiQrHHN«M®tfiiOOOff>OOCO«iM>  - OOO 

t-t>t-l>l>I>l>0000  00  00  00<»00000000010i  05  05a5(J505  C—  P-  p- 

HHHHrlHHHHHHHHHriHHrlrlHriHHH  1— 1 i— ) tH 

Protein  in  Mill  Pr’dets 

i-> 

0 

S 

-<*i®C'-t'-COeOC5T  ® LO  CO  CO  © ■'T  t-  ® 

HOt^LOO^HM  CSICCOSOJMXOO^^M 

(NWOIH^OCO®  MHHCOlOOOOqWasN 

rH  tH  rH  tH  rH  rH  rH  tH  tH  tH  rH  rH  rH  tH  rH  tH  rH  rH  ^ rH i 

Bran  |shorts| 

ooascqoco'T1  • 10  10^  o5oi 

c©  as  ip-  oo  lq  co  • as  as  c©  p-  NooiOHooo®HOib.i> 

l>  05  ^ O 05  1^  • rH  rfOOoO^  OOCDCCOOaSLOLOC^^^^O 

rH  rH  tH  t— 1 rH  t— 1 • rH  tH  rH  rH  tH  rH  tH  rH  H H H H H rH  rH  rH 

P-  ® <M  l©  OSOSC©C<l--3<®LO<rO''*'LOT— 1 

OOHHOIOOWIOOS  « OO  H ICOOHNMt-lOOMHW 

c-ocoloooioc'-co  oo  os  t>  ia  t^cO'fc^O'^Lor-ococo 

HNHhHHHH  H H H H HHHHNrtHHNrlrl 

Gluten  inFlour 

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t-MHrfHOOWO  CO  ®S  00  ® C—  OS  N H N N N r- 1 N H ® 

NCOOSH«OOMr^  ® M K5  CO  Tf  H H lO  t-  O H lO  05  M 

co  n i>  ® 10  lo  a p-  c©  e-  p-  lo  oiao-^oioooiDMp-® 

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®oocood®iNasas  ® as  cso  oq  OH'HcoasooonfOooo 

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tfi 

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Bran 

ooosincDoscoMP*  oouooo  p-Nao'fincinoC'Dco 

l>COlOiOCOLOl>lO  LO  CO  LO  LOCOlOt^CDI>l>lOt^iOC^ 

tH  tH  HrHrHTHr-iH  tH  rH  rH  rH  r— ir—irH  rH  rT  r-1  r-*  n rH  rH  rH 

Analysis  of  the  Wheat 

Carbo 
and  Oil 

HHoincoN«cof'(50,touo(Nioino505NHin®HoocqinMHaio 
C005l0'Tij<O05  00r^l>®(NHI>l50®(N^in^(N05inH01^00O05(N 
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P-tOP-<DP-p*-Dl'-p'I>P*P,P-I>P‘P'P"P*P'P'C^P*P"P'P*tO['-t>P't'* 

ICrude  1 
|P  rot’11 

OSCOOOOHNHCOXOLOlOlO^SOH^Ot-NNintflOOCOHinOS^lM 
®^cgOC0®^t>00CD®Tt<in05C0C0C0H00Tj<in00(N00'tC0t^05iNC0 
WOOHCOOCOlOHCOHtOHHtOCOOHCO(MtOi>HWMOOC)0005(MH 
rH  t-H  tH  tH  tH  H H H r H H rH  rH  rH  tH  rH  H H H H rH  rH  rH  tH  tH  H r rH  rH 

tn 

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05lOHHOO®NONP-COHOOHO^{OHMin(»05HHXC*H®OOM 

H(N(NNHdN01fqH<NNHM(N<N(N(N(NlNNHN(N01H(NHHr4 

05COOOOCOOP-C-(NOl>r-ip>lNH^®0®(NOOOOCOO«DinOOCO'^ 
OH(Nff>lTt<C5«C0l>05M(NI'^Mp.«Mp.C0C0CDTt<C0®P*05H(NMi05(N 
HC5COW(MM(MWHria50(MHCOH0500C5000C5COC5H  05  00  C5 
rH  rH  rH  rH  rH  H H tH  rH  rH  rH  rH  rH  tH  rH  rH  rH  rH  rH  rH  rH 

Quality 

Medium  . . . 
[Shrivelled . 
[Heavy  .... 
Light  ..... 
| Heavy  .... 
| Heavy  .... 

Light  

I Heavy  .... 
[Light  .... 
[Medium  . . 

Light  

Medium  . . . 
Heavy  .... 
Medium  . . . 
Medium  . . . 
Heavy  .... 
Medium  . . . 
Medium  . . . 
Medium  . . . 

Light  

Shrivelled . 
Heavy  .... 
Heavy  .... 
Heavy  .... 

num  

num  

age  

Heavy  .... 
Medium  . . . 
|Shrivelled  . 

Smpl 

No. 

^P-COTj<OOHLO®GOcot>tOI>(50NHH  © 00  OS  c©  p-  OO  “IT  *5  y<  CO  -*t<  L© 
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p-p-p'-p'-t'-p'-p'-ooooooooooooooooooooasa5asas©5®©s*3£p|p-p-p- 

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Variety 

Bluestem 

Jones’  Fife 

TABLE  II.  RESULTS  OF  TESTS  ON  WASHINGTON  WHEATS— CROP  OF  1906— Continued. 


0) 


Sampl< 

No. 

OONMMffiONMOOOffiO  Ht-OOOJOiWt-COOSNM 

t'flSNMCOICOJOOt'C'OO  OOHrtNtOOOffii-fqM 

L-t-00000000000105  05  0505  C~00  00  00  00  C5O5t~00  00  00 

HHHHHHHHHHHH  HHrli-irlrlHrlrHrHH 

jGluteu  inFlourj Protein  in  Mill  Pr’dcts| 

Flour 

cqooo-LO  cst-C'-©i-icoir5©oO(rciLGicoiG>LOoot~'sFt-ooooi©t-C'-; 
OOO^COO  NOOHNniNOIXKCCO©WHteMHHI>COOJHC-M 

cooiOHTt  (Ncqd^od^aiHasoowLOooaiddc-Qoo^^o 

rH  H H rH  tH  H H H H H H rH  rH  tH  tH  tH  tH 

in 

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JG 

C/3 

lOOHOOO  E5t>NI>1000M00(N®00Ot>®  050  O 't1  l>  N O ^ CO 

Klfq'tCO(NMT)HM(NNinOOCiNT)HNTf^l>t>M'^t> 
00  CO  CO  00  LOCOLO^^COOOCOlOCOHCDLOCO^^^HCO(MCC»HCO 

tH  rH  rH  H r- ( HHHHHHHHrlHHHHHHHHH  rH  r— ! rH  tH  rH 

j Dry  Bran 

int>ME5(»IN^Oi^OCnOO®COlOHlXiff}lOOtOOCl^ 
CO  O CO  lO  (N  OOfqC5(NCO^<OqcOHMCOHI>'^lOHHI>HQHI>05 
t^coc^rfoo  LOcptdLOCocooofNiONdcdtocicq^^ascoo^^w 

rH  tH  t— 1 rH  tH  rH  rH  HHHHHHHHHHH  tH  H H H H H H rH 

MNNinOOOOCOOOHCO^NMN’^HO^NCONNO'^HCON'^CO 
HlOCOCOCONOHOlOlOOHO^OJLOMNlNlXOlOOlCOlONOJN 
HOOt-OMC-WHHCOCi^HhOO^HlOOOCSOCiCDCit-W^O 
rH  H H H H H H rH  rH  rH  tH  rH  rH  iH  rH 

aJ 

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(Nt>COOOt>OOlOfOHlOI>Nt>^000005lOOlOCOTjiTlHt-05'tCO 

'tcoooNcocoi>oocoocq^Ni>o^HaiU3ooHeot>ooH®t'ia 

t>(Ndo5^05H0500inCOOOI>OOI>I>M®OONlOt-lOCOlOO<»'0'fi 

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Y’ld  of  Mill  PcdtS! 

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K. 

N^^NL.COOOlO«CONlOCO«(»OOOU5fqOlOlNMOOC!OONH 

HHHCqNMHOIMONOqMOHNMNHHHOOONOiOMMrt 

J Shrts 

t>COLOp.M(NffqLOTMNI>OI>(NI><OiO<<tOlOOlOMNlO«NM'a<M 
COC^COCQ(N(N(NI(NCqcdcqdcC(NICqC<lHHCO<NCOCOLOHCOCOLOHC<J 
HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHH  tH  tH  tH  rH  rH  rH  tH  tH  tH  t-H  rH 

Bran 

HOHHONOOMlOHiaONlOifiaCOlOCOOOCONOOOrH 

LOCDLOijoio^cr)c^LOc^LOud^-TtiiJOLOuo'X>LOcc>^cr>co^rH-cc»i>-LOco 

HHHHt-iHHhHHHHHHHHHH  rH  rH  rH  rH  tH  rH  rH  rH  tH  tH  rH 

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Carbo. 
and  Oil 

O^MOOOOMNffi^ifiOlOrHOCOOlNOJH^^OOOMOOMMHH 

CO^lOMTm-lONNOOHNOCOCO'H^OOHOlOHiat-OJOSOiHO 

OlG>'CO<X>CO<X>'*t<TtiLO'^OOOOa5®lOC£>t-<OciT-HC£>C~<X>'^00'CC>OOOOi-l<X> 

C—  b-t'-t—  t-t-t—  t'-t—C—C'-t'-t'-t'-t'-C—  C'-t—t—t—C'-t'-t'-C'-C'-t'-t'-t'-  t- 

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HOO<NlCa5COCOCqcOHHlOC5CqOC5COlOC50HHXOC5COOOO 

H H H H H rH  rH  H H H H H rHrH  rH  rH  H H H tH  rH  tH 

HOiOHHH^OikOUJOOnOCiir-OOOiCDOOlOOWHMOiCOOO© 
85  W t-'COOt-OJ  HOO  H 00  ^ CO  00  t-  t-  H H ©CMNOOOi  0 11  N» 

HHHH(NHH(NHNNHNHHHHNNNNHti'HH<NNHH 

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't«©l0Tf01H(J)ONC0t>'!j<cOH00HMlNN©0005©C0H05HH 

MNHffl05HO0jdaM»M00©HHHH<N©©NH©aNa)H 

Quality 

Medium 

Heavy 

Heavy  .... 
Heav-y  .... 
Medium  . . . 
Heavy  .... 
Medium  . . . 
Medium  . . . 
Medium  ... 
JLight  

Heavy  .... 
Heavy  .... 

mini  

1111  m 

age  

Heavy  .... 
Medium  . . . 
Medium  . . . 
Medium  . . . 

| Heavy  .... 
Medium  . . . 
Medium  . . . 
Medium  . . . 
Medium  . . . 

Light  

Heavy  .... 

num  

mini  .. 

age  j 

Smpl 

No. 

OONMOOOIONNOO  > 3 © ^ •«  J?Hti00OjO5(ai>eOQNN,5>-  *« 
IXJSNMMCOOJOO  -0-00  2 — »OOHH(MCO©©jr5H(NM  5 S T 

t-t-OOOOOOOOOO©©©^©^^^^  00  00  00  00®5^^00  00  00^^^ 
H < 1 g S < 

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u 

~x  ■- 

<u 

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c 0 
0 

15  v 
005 

TABLE  II.  RESULTS  OF  TESTS  ON  WASHINGTON  WHEATS— CROP  OF  1906— Continued 


a> 

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rlHHHHHHHHrlH  Hr- 1 r 1 rl  1— 1 r I HHHHh 

| Protein  in  Mill  Pr’dcts 

Bran  J Shorts  Flour 

-UOCOt-OOi^lflTfHOOOOTHOoojOOINNHNHCfl^HOOOOlOlOWOO 

COF*t^N5CCO®OHHoetDHOiOiXit>-C'00»t-tCOO(NTjiffsCOOOOO(NU5 

owHHocoH^No^^OMHGajNHajw^ooociooajHHooaj 

HHHHHHHHHHHH  H t-H  ,-h  H H rH  rH  H H 

MNt-t-t-0X»Ln<»LnoOI>^«iN50050)t>i3>(NMO05H00OOON 
COtO^^MLOCOLOCOCO^^M^OCO^^OCO^COlOCO^TtcOiOtCCO^ 
rH  tH  r-i  rH  H H rH  tH  rH  H H H H r-  rH  rH  rHrHrHrHrHrHrHr- 1 rH  t-H  tH  rH  tH  rH  rH 

OtOmt-i'Ht'OOOOOH  HOCl^^LfllOO^lO'tNNt'lrtOOOOMTf 
l>^OMaCiOHO'.l>NMt'Mci:MOOOU3MOCO^IDT)<Ot'«M(ON 
MlOcq'tNLO'^©MHOOOOH'tLONNt^(Dfqt>N'^HM{ONlfltflHM 
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Gluten  inFlour 

V 

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Dry 

NO'Jt»M00t>l0O««>®N03NOlflNHNHC')ajTfiniflNt.t-T)HH 
NOt'SlOOIMt'HOONNNOMXOHOlflOlflNMOOOiOOO  O CO  CO 
tOOt-Nff>OOHO®OOlOi.';!CLO«50Tt<ceoOa)l»Oi'tCGDlNMI>F'OtD 
(NCOCONNMMrfiMNTtiTtNMNNiNlNMT-NHNNMiMiMCOOJNN 

|Y’ld  of  Mill  Prdets 

3 

£ 

tL 

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HHHHHHrlHH  t— < HHHHHHHH  rH  rH  rH  rH  rH  rH  rH  rH  rH  rH  rH  rH  rH 

[ Bran 

^lflO<NC5NtO^O(3C|£)NOOMi3lOr*COlflClt'lOlfll>50®Tt<OOC5Tl'l> 

HUOCO‘X>LOtf5UOLJS>l^c’'3lO?OCOLiO'5t,''fCOUOLOlAC©HLr5COCOCOCC>SOC£>cc>CO 

Analysis  of  the  wheat 

^_S 

t-Orft-aiMHClOOaiOOHTtimHOOOOffSCiOOOCJtDClOOOOOOoOH 
HtONOCUOClNtCCloHtfO^^OM^HHOOH’tiNOMNMN^ 
o6(MMNlOMCDCOCOCD-»ooOiMLO'T,t'J,fO^OOOOCOlO«DC£>I>OOLOOOU5«D 
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0 a 
T3  - 

2 ® 

^Wt-OtD^OiNOOOcOMOTtiOJTjiLfliOTfMClCOOtOiOaOMMtON 

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HCONHO^H^WOiOLddwCOOO^WOCOOHOJOOONdaiO 

rH  rH  rH  tH  rH  rH  rH  ^ ^ rH  rH  t-H  rH  rH  rH  rH  rH  rH  rH  rH  t— < t-h  rH  rH  rH  rH  rH  rH 

J3 

in 

< 

NOON01ijiiOO<N©tOoNOLOOI>Nt-NOt»Ot>OlOOOC5tOC50« 

(DWWlDOOOOt-HOlt-^HTtit^LOCOWHOlt-Hint-tCOOIXJjajastOOO 

HHHHHHrltllHrlHNHHTHrlHWHHNrHHHT-IHrHHHHrl 

Moistre 

!>C£'t-'tH00Tti®WC?S00|>®Ot'OlN©«MNO(MTjHL':Tt<TtiMTMflMTji 

OMt'5£MNt-C0l0®lffl|Mt-55©05H5C00Tt,00H00H50(NOTjiXCC'^00 

CJNNCQHaClO^OffjNoOodfONOJOCSMClHNHHCiCOlNOJO 

HHHH  tH  tH  tH  HHHH  t-i  rH 1 i— ItHtHtH  tH 

Quality 

Heavy  .... 
Heavy  .... 
Heavy  .... 
Heavy  .... 
Heavy  .... 

Light  

Heavy  .... 
Heavy  .... 
Heavy  .... 
Medium  . . . 
Heavy  . . 
mini 

nuni  

age  

Light  

Medium  . . . 
Medium  . . . 
Medium  . . . 

Light  

Heavy  .... 

mum  

mini  

age  

Medium  . . . 
Medium  . . . 
Heavy  .... 
Heavy  .... 

Light  

mum  

num  

age  

Srnpl 

No. 

OiOi^T^LrtOCOro^C^^'^'S  SNOONlOHTtlO'J.S  M «C  O H Tf  ‘5  fa 

©L-OOCSIM^fCoOC-C-t-  2 © 5^  © 00  CD  "T1  ® I>-  g fi  ® 00  N CO  M O*  g © 9 
C-C-C-t'-00O00O®®®'^j2L3^c'*t'‘t'*OOCCCD^;35t>-0OO0OOCS|12;2  > 

Variety 

Turkey  Red  ... 

Forty  Fold 

Red  Russian  .. 

TABLE  It.  RESULTS  OF  TESTS  ON  WASHINGTON  WHEATS— CROP  OF  1906— Continued 


Sample 

No. 

OOONOOI>aiOOO®N?Ot*t-t>?C«KOtOt-«l(N 

Tt<c~ooait~ooa5Cit'-oooooot'-t-ooooooooooc~oo 

r- 1 r— i H r- 1 tH  t— ! rH  t— 1 rH  rH  rH  rH  rH  i— I rH  tH  rH  r— 1 rH 1 t— 1 i— 1 

[Protein  in  Mill  Pr’dctsj 

|shorts|  Flour 

Mt'OOlOHOCOOMOOlMCCCOasOt'OOTf 

©CDI>TfTj<{01flOOit<ffiOOO'T«CiOOO>tOfOE:ifl 

WrlHH^oaiaOOOOHHaiaiHCOOai 
rH  rH  rH  rH  rH  rH  rH  rH  tH  rH  rH  rH  rH 

'ifcoosoc-Loeoosiocjc^asC'-coaiCiiocoMco 

rH  rH  rH  t-t  rH  rH  rH  rH  rH  rH  rH  rH  rH  rH  rH  rH  rH  tH  rH  t-t 

Bran 

C-COt-OOOM-^NC-OOOLOlfltOOlHt-lMMOO 

©(MOlM^IOMt-t-OlCOtflCOH^COiMCKNH 

HWWIOOOCO(N1COCOCOWIOCDHH^C£>HCOC<1 

rH  rH  rH  rH  rH  rH  rH  rH  rH  rH  rH  rH  rH  rH  rH  rH  rH  rH  rH  rH 

[Gluten  inFlour 

>> 

0 

00(»Tft-OM>t'a>HHTHE5O01r-iMOO 

TfHNWrfOOOHHNOOHflodpiOHOa) 

Wet 

Ot-WOlOOiat-lOmCO^HOCOCqOOlOOl'TiN 

MOOOO)01U3HlMNOCOaiCCHI>OHMOia 

QOONOlOt-NaOOMMN'tOOOOLOOaCOiM 

COMMN^NlMlMIMMlNCOCOlMlNMeOiMNOl 

Y’ld  of  Mill  Pdcts 

0 

s 

in 

£ 

CAJ 

Ot-JJCOCCNWOTIO 

00H«NTf(NO5HO05  <M©<M<?QC'C105<MrHr-! 

CC  1>  !>  t-  t-  t>  50  t>  l>  !£>  t~C'-C-t'-t-5©C~C~t- 

lOM^^OOlCOWWO  KKOOOOHlflHlM 

LOCOOCOiMHHtNICOH  (NKMH<M(MCOrHCO<M 

HHHHHHHHH  rH  rH  rH  rH  rH  rH  rH  rH  rH  rH 

[ Bran 

OHt-COTflJHlflOlO  OQOt-OOOOiMOlM 

rH  H tH  rH  rH  n rH  rH  rH  rH  n rH  rH  rH  rH  rH  rH  rH  r 

Analysis  of  the  Wheat 

Carbo. 
and  Oil 

MOOOOnnOOt)ast'lONt-(MOHlOOM50l>COM 
C0HMHH00C0C5iM50H(NTC'fl00N'tl<»O<M 
05H5odci(NI>(xl-TlOU510eO(NU5Tt'rfinMlflt> 
it—  tr—  t — tr—  tr—  t^—  It—  t—  C-—  l: — t — C — C — t — t—  t — tr—  Cr—  tr— 

ICrude | 
(Prot’n 

coco['-®LOT-it'-Tt<c~C'-c<i^fC'a'<rLr3co?0''j<©coTH 

lOasHOUOt-lOHIXMMOOOlMOOOOHHMCOTfH 

■TrqNHfllOHOOHHfflNiNOHOJNHOO 

| Ash 

'^C~00'^LO<X>00<MC~C'--'tl©l>-00©<0q©«£>LOT--ILr5 

i-i<?qooT--it'-a5ioooir2©t-t-ooaioooj©C'-©©oo_ 

NMHIMHHHHrlNHHHHHHNHINNH 

Moistre 

ONNlMlflt-©t>HTfl>Tj<Ht-ONO'TOOOH 

D-WCOOOlONHOMONHT^HHlOrfOnOM 

OJCqQaiCOasaJOiCOHHCONWiNKNIOCxNKNlO 

rH  rH  rH  rH  rH  rH  rH  rH  rH  rH  rH  tH  rH  rH  rH 

Quality 

Light  

Heavy  .... 
Heavy  .... 
Heavy  .... 
Heavy  .... 
Medium  . . . 
Heavy  .... 
Medium  . . . 
Heavy  .... 
Medium  . . . 
Heavy  .... 
Medium  . . . 
Heavy  .... 
Medium  . . . 
Heavy  .... 
| Heavy  . . 
Heavy  .... 
Heavy  .... 
Heavy  .... 
Medium  . . . 
Heavy  .... 

Smpl 

No. 

t>lOC-H^.'tff}ffQ50'tlO©kOOHNMTH®0 

©ooc'aooc~ci>©ooc5C'q:ot~[-t>*c£>CD50©c--ooc<i 

^t-oofflt-ooosost^ooooooot-ooWooooooooo 

rH  rH  rH  rH  rH  rH  rH  r^  rH  HHHHHHHHH  rH  rH  rH 

Variety 

Macaroni 

Sonora 

White  Amber.. 
Red  Allen 

White  Elliot.... 

Genesee  Giant 
Squarehead.... 
Dale 

Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


15 


In  this  table,  each  sample  is  designated  by  its  laboratory 
number,  and  all  the  samples  of  the  same  variety  are  grouped  to- 
gether, being  arranged  in  the  numerical  order  of  their  labora- 
tory numbers  without  regard  to  their  origin  or  quality  as  shown 
in  Table  I.  However,  there  has  been  inserted  in  the  third  col- 
umn of  the  table  a note  concerning  the  quality  of  the  grain  in 
the  samples  using  the  conventional  terms  of  “ heavy/ ’ “ light,  ” 
etc.  which  are  commonly  employed  for  this  purpose  in  order 
that  improper  conclusions  may  not  be  drawn  from  some  of  the 
analytical  figures.  In  the  case  of  those  varieties  of  which  a con- 
siderable number  of  samples  were  tested,  the  maximum,  mini- 
mum, and  average  percentage  of  each  constituent  which  was 
determined,  has  been  inserted,  in  order  to  facilitate  compari- 
sons between  varieties. 

The  method  of  operation  of  the  tests  applied  to  each  sam- 
ple have  been  described  in  detail  in  Bulletin  No.  84  and  need 
not  be  repeated  here. 

The  results  recorded  in  the  table  afford  a basis  of  compari- 
son of  the  average  quality  of  the  different  varieties  represented 
by  these  samples,  for  the  season  of  1906.  In  general  these  re- 
lationships are  the  same  as  shown  by  the  crop  of  1905.  The 
percentage  of  protein  in  the  wheat  and  flour  and  the  gluten 
tests  on  the  flour  are  higher  in  every  case  than  in  the  samples 
of  1905,  showing  the  effect  of  the  hot  weather  during  harvest 
in  increasing  the  percentage  of  nitrogenous  matter  by  cutting 
short  the  deposition  of  starch  in  the  ripening  grain.  The  re- 
lative rank  of  the  several  varieties  in  protein  content  is  the  same 
as  in  the  preceding  year. 

The  relation  in  composition  of  light  weight  or  shrivelled 
grain  to  heavier  or  plumiper  wheat  grown  in  the  same  locality 
is  shown  in  the  table  to  be  that  in  every  case  the  lighter  grain 
is  richer  in  per  cent  of  protein  and  yields  flour  of  higher  gluten 
test.  The  total  yield  of  flour  is  usually  greater  in  the  heavier 
wheat,  the  percentage  of  bran  being  nearly  always  higher  in  the 
lighter  grain.  The  differences  in  yield  of  total  or  “straight” 
flour  were  not  so  great  as  was  anticipated,  however.  The  facili- 
ties for  experimental  milling  do  not  permit  the  separation  of 
the  flour  into  “patent”  and  “baker’s”  grades,  hence  it  was 


16 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


impossible  to  determine  the  effect  of  the  shrivelling  of  the 
grain  upon  the  percentage  yield  of  “patent”  flour.  It  would 
appear,  from  the  results  of  these  tests,  that  the  slightly  de- 
creased yield  of  flour  from  the  light  weight  grain  is  at  least 
fully  compensated  for  by  the  increased  food  and  baking  value 
due  to  the  increased  protein,  or  gluten  content  of  the  flour,  and 
that  the  practice  of  discriminating  in  market  prices  against 
the  lighter  weight  grain  is  not  justifiable  from  the  standpoint 
of  total  flour  production.  This  would  be  especially  true  in 
those  localities  and  under  those  conditions  where  the  mill  by- 
products have  a commercial  value  not  much  lower  than  the  sell- 
ing value  of  flour.  Under  these  circumstances,  the  slight  de- 
crease in  the  yield  of  flour  and  increase  in  the  percentage  of 
bran  makes  a very  small  difference  in  the  total  value  of  the  pro- 
duct. If,  then,  the  increased  food  and  baking  value  of  the  flour 
from  the  lighter  grain  is  taken  into  consideration  it  would  ap- 
pear that  the  light  weight  grain  is  fully  as  valuable  for  mill- 
ing purposes  as  heavier  wheat.  It  will  take  more  extensive  mill- 
ing tests  to  determine  whether  the  yield  of  “patent”  flour  is 
seriously  lowered  by  the  failure  of  the  grain  to  thoroughly  ma- 
ture in  seasons  of  short  ripening  periods. 

The  results  of  the  same  tests  upon  the  Eastern-grown  wheats 
are  shown  in  Table  III. 


TABLE  III.  RESULTS  OF  TESTS  ON  EASTERN  WHEATS. 

Ismpll  Where  Analysis  of  the  Wheat  Vid  of  Mill  Pdcts  Gluten  inFlour]  Protein  in  Mill  Pr’dcts] 


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18 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


These  results  show  that  the  chemical  composition  and  other 
analytical  results  on  these  samples  are  not  greatly  different 
from  those  of  Washington  wheats  grown  the  same  year.  The 
samples  from  Illinois  are  noticeably  lower  in  those  consti- 
tuents which  are  generally  recognized  as  conferring  high  qual- 
ity upon  wheat  and  its  mill  products.  The  samples  from  North 
and  South  Dakota  and  Minnesota,  the  so-called  “hard  red 
spring  wheat”  section  show  analytical  data  very  similar  to  that 
of  the  best  wheats  of  Washington.  Those  from  the  “hard  win- 
ter wheat”  district  in  Kansas  generally  show  somewhat  higher 
per  centages  of  desirable  constituents  than  the  averages  for 
any  Washington  varieties,  while  the  winter  wheats  from  Ne- 
braska are  considerably  lower  in  the  same  constituents. 

Evidence  from  additional  tests  on  other  year’s  crops  must 
be  secured  before  final  conclusions  can  safely  be  drawn.  It 
would  appear  from  the  results  of  these  tests,  however,  that  so 
far  as  the  crop  of  1906  is  concerned,  the  difference  between  the 
so-called  “hard”  wheats  of  the  Mississippi  Valley  and  the 
“soft”  wheats  of  this  State,  is  not  so  great  as  has  been  sup- 
posed. It  has  been  pointed  out,  on  the  other  hand,  that  Wash- 
ington wheats  of  the  crop  of  1906  are  richer  in  protein  .i,nd 
yield  flour  of  higher  gluten  content  than  those  of  the  preceding 
years ’s  crop.  Should  it  later  be  ascertained  that  the  1906  sam- 
ples of  Eastern  grown  wheats  were  lower  than  they  normally 
are  in  the  constituents,  then  the  real  difference  between  East- 
ern and  Washington  wheats  is  greater  than  shown  by  this  year’s 
tests.  If,  however,  the  Mississippi  Valley  wheat  of  the  crop  of 

1906  were  above  the  normal  in  the  same  way,  or  to  the  same  de- 
gree that  Washington  wheats  of  this  season  were,  there  the 
difference  between  the  two  is  normally  no  greater  than  that 
found  this  year. 

THE  CROP  OF  1907 

The  samples  of  Washington  grown  wheats  of  the  crop  of 

1907  were  secured  in  exactly  the  same  manner  as  those  of  the 
preceding  years.  The  total  number  of  samples  received  was 
eighty,  representing  sixteen  different  varieties  and  twenty-four 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


19 


different  shipping  points.  The  full  details  of  the  descriptions 
accompanying  the  samples  are  shown  in  Table  IV. 


TABLE  IV.  DESCRIPTION  OF  SAMPLES— CROP  OF  1907 


20 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


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TABLE  IV.  DESCRIPTION  OF  SAMPLES— CROP  OF  1907— Continubd 


22 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


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23 


The  harvest  of  1907  was  remarkable  for  its  cool,  cloudy, 
moist  weather  in  many  parts  of  the  state.  As  a consequence 
the  majority  of  the  samples  received  were  of  plump,  heavy 
grain.  In  some  localities,  rain  fell  while  the  grain  was  ripe  and 
still  standing  uncut  in  the  fields,  or  in  the  shock.  Some  of  the 
grain  was  therefore  bleached,  and  samples  representing  this 
kind  of  grain  are  marked  “Bl”  in  the  column  headed  “ Condi- 
tion.’ ’ In  certain  sections  of  the  state,  maturity  was  so  slow 
that  an  early  frost  caught  some  of  the  wheat  before  it  was  quite 
ripe.  Samples  of  this  grain  are  marked  “F.”  “Sm”  in  the 
same  column  indicates  that  the  grain  was  badly  damaged  by 
smut,  and  “W”  indicates  the  presence  of  considerable  foreign 
weed  seeds. 

The  complete  results  of  the  laboratory  and  milling  tests  on 
these  samples  are  shown  in  Table  V. 


TABLE  V.  RESULTS  OF  TESTS— CROP  OE  1907 


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NNNNNNN  iNNNNN(NfqcgN(N(NiMN(MNN<NC<) 

•JProtein  in  Mill  Pr’dcts 

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tH  t— 1 rH  r— 1 rH  tH  tH  H r— 1 H r- 1 rH  HHHHrlHHHrlH  H H rH  tH  tH  rH 

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MLO^NHOOHMM^iNt'NOaiOt-HMCOlNMat'OOaOlfl 
o>T3'^coiLOir5oqiaoaiLot-coLOiooda3LC5tOLO(X>o  cq  t-  oci  oo  oo  oo 
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t-  c-  c-  t>  o*  t>  t—  r—  t>  t-  c-  d-  c-  t-  t-  c-  tr-  c~  t-  t-  t-  c-  c-  t- 

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Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


27 


The  results  recorded  in  the  table  show  that  the  whole  crop 
of  1907  averages  lower  in  protein,  or  gluten  producing  material, 
than  the  crop  of  1906,  the  difference  being  undoubtedly  due 
to  the  cool,  moist,  cloudy  weather  during  the  harvest  season  of 
1907  as  compared  with  the  hot,  dry  harvest  weather  of  1906. 
It  is  believed  tha't  the  actual  difference  between  the  two  crops 
is  greater  than  that  shown  in  the  two  tables  (Tables  II  and  V.)y 
because  of  the  fact  that  most  of  the  samples  of  the  crop  which 
were  sent  to  the  Station  were  of  No.  1 grade,  whereas  a very 
large  percentage  of  the  total  crop  of  the  state  for  that  year  was 
lighter  grain  of  No.  2,  or  even  No.  3,  grade.  The  instances  in 
which  heavy  and  light  grain  were  received  from  the  same  local- 
ity and  tested  side  by  side  in  the  laboratory  show,  as  has  been 
pointed  out,  that  the  lighter  grain  was  richer  in  protein  and 
yielded  flour  with  higher  gluten  content.  Hence,  if  as  large  a 
proportion  of  the  samples  tested  had  been  light  wreight  grain, 
as  was  the  proportion  of  light  grain  in  the  whole  crop  of  the 
state,  the  average  percentage  of  these  constituents  in  the  year’s 
samples  would  doubtless  have  been  considerably  higher  than 
those  actual^  obtained. 

The  comparisons  to  be  drawn  from  the  two  tables  do  show, 
however,  the  variations  in  the  similar  grade,  or  plumpness,  of 
grain  grown  in  the  two  seasons  in  the  same  districts  and  afford 
very  interesting  evidence  upon  the  relation  of  climate  to  the 
chemical  composition  of  crops.  The  comparison  between  sam- 
ples of  the  same  grade  of  any  given  variety,  grown  during  the 
same  season,  show  what  variations  may  be  caused  by  different 
•conditions  of  growth.  But  in  such  cas‘e  it  is  impossible  to  say 
how  much  of  the  observed  variations  may  be  due  to  difference 
in  soil  and  how  much  to  climatic  differences.  But  the  compari- 
son between  crops  grown  in  the  same  locality,  on  the  same 
soils,  in  different  years,  eliminates  the  possibility  of  soil  in- 
fluence, at  least  so  far  as  chemical  composition  of  the  soil  is 
concerned,  and  limits  the  causes  for  the  differences  found  to 
climatic  influences,  such  as  temperature,  sunshine,  moisture 
supply,  etc.  It  appears  from  the  analytical  figures  already  ob- 
tained in  this  study,  and  from  similar  results  obtained  by 
other  investigators,  and  the  chief,  if  not  sole  factor  in  determin- 


28 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


ing  the  comparative  chemical  composition  of  wheat  of  the  same 
variety  grown  in  different  localities  is  the  climatic  conditions 
during  harvest,  and  that  differences  in  the  compositon  of  the 
soil  have  very  little,  if  any,  effect  upon  the  quality  of  the  grain, 
except  in  so  far  as  the  soil  affects  the  moisture  supply  of  the 
plant.  In  comparisons  between  different  varieties,  the  tendency 
of  each  variety  to  produce  grain  of  a certain  quality  must,  of 
course,  be  taken  into  account.  But  varietal  differences  seem 
'to  be  less  marked  than  differences  within  the  same  variety 
caused  by  variations  in  the  climatic  conditions  under  which  the 
grain  is  ripened. 

Investigations  are  in  progress  at  this  station  to  determine 
the  .• effect  of  each  of  the  several  factors  which  go  to  make  up 
■ climatic  influence,  such  as  relative  temperature,  cloudy  weather 
Vor  direct  sunshine,  humidity  of  the  air,  moisture  supply  in  the 
coil  cr  rainfall,  etc.,  upon  the  composition  of  the  wheat;  and 
also  the  stage  of  the  plants  development  at  which  these  in- 
aluences  exert  the  strongest  effect  upon  the  quality  of  the  ripe 
■grain.  The  results  of  these  investigations  will  be  presented  in 
slater  bulletin. 

ATXTAGE  COMPOSITION  OF  WHEATS  OF  THE  CROPS  OF 
1905,  1906  and  1907 

It  is  very  desirable  that  the  full  live  years’  investigation 
shall  be  completed  before  definite  conclusions  as  to  the  compara- 
tive composition  of  the  different  varieties  of  wheat  grown  in  this 
state  are  drawn.  But  the  results  of  the  three  years’  tests  which 
lave  been  completed,  representing  as  they  do  one  nearly  nor- 
mal. cue  usually  hot  and  dry,  and  one  cool,  moist,  harvest  sea- 
son may  be  summed  up  and  certain  average  figures  presented 
wbmh  will  be  of  general  interest.  Accordingly  some  of  the  data 
from,  1 be  entire  number  of  samples  have  been  received,  has  been 
■romp-led  and  the  averages  for  the  moisture  and  protein  con- 
f • i if  the  grain,  the  yield  of  flour,  and  the  wet  gluten  test  of 
the  ibr.r,  are  presented  in  Table  VI. 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


29 


TABLE  VI 

AVERAGE  OF  TESTS  FOR  THE  THREE  CROPS 
1905-1907  INCLUSIVE 


variety 

No.  of 
Samples 
Tested 

Moisture 
Per  Cent 

Crude 
Protein 
Per  Cent 

Yield  of 
Flour 
Per  Cent 

Wet  Gluten 
Per  Cent 

Macaroni  

9 . 

9.94  • 

12.41 

72.0 

32.77 

Bluestem  

76 

10.88 

12.34 

71.7 

30.98 

Turkey  Red  .... 

28  . 

10.40 

11.96 

71.2 

30.68 

Sonora  

7 

12.00 

11.78 

72.2 

30.29 

Jones’  Fife  

30 

10.07 

11.67 

71.8 

26.25 

Red  Allen  

12 

11.75 

11.56 

72.7 

30.29 

White  Amber  .... 

6 

12.10 

11.01 

71.1 

26.97 

Fortyfold  

15 

11.06 

10.96 

72.5 

23.1  1 

Club  

43 

10.93 

10.68 

72.5 

25.82 

Red  Russian  .... 

12 

10.67 

9.77 

71.2 

22.86 

In  this  table  the  several  varieties  are  arranged  in  the  order 
of  their  average  protein  contents  for  flapr  making.  Sonora 
wheat  is  largely  used  for  the  manufacture  of  bread  foods.  Maca- 
roni wheat  is  not  yet  used  in  any  quantity  in  this  state.  The 
comparatively  high  protein  content  of  the  few  samples  which 
have  been  analyzed  indicate  that  in  this  state  it  con- 
forms to  its  usual  high  gluten  qualities.  It  is,  there- 
fore, a very  valuable  wheat  for  food  purposes,  and 
may  be  largely  used  in  this  country  for  the  manu- 
facture of  macaroni  and  similar  food  products.  Millers  are 
not  yet  successful  in  producing  as  high  a quality  of  flour  from 
this  variety  of  wheat  as  its  high  gluten  content  would  seem  to 
indicate  to  be  possible.  It  is  possible  that  further  study  of  this 
matter  may  reveal  a proper  system  of  milling  whereby  a flour 
of  good  baking  quality  may  be  made  from  this  high  gluten 
wheat. 

It  should  not  be  understood  that  the  averages  presented  in 
this  table  necessarily  represent  the  real  relative  composition  of 
these  several  varieties  of  wheat  as  grown  in  this  state.  They 
do,  probably,  acurately  represent  the  comparative  values  of 
these  varieties  for  milling  purposes,  so  far  as  the  three  years, 
1905  to  1907  are  concerned.  At  least,  this  may  be  assumed  to 
be  true  for  the  five  varieties  of  which  twelve  or  more  samples 
were  submitted  to  complete  tests. 


30 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


A lack  of  sufficient  laboratory  force  to  handle  the  rapidly 
increasing  volume  of  analytical  work  of  the  Department,  has 
made  it  impossible  to  carry  out  such  elaborate  sponge  and  bak- 
ing tests  on  the  samples  collected  during  these  two  years  as 
were  originally  planned,  and  put  in  operation  upon  a part  of 
the  samples  of  the  crop  of  1905.  A student  of  the  Washing- 
ton State  College  did  make  some  baking  tests  on  some  of  the 
samples  of  the  crop  of  1906,  using  both  some  of  the  Washing- 
ton-grown and  some  of  the  Eastern-grown  wheats.  He  was 
absolutely  inexperienced  in  the  methods  of  bread-making  and 
in  the  use  of  the  standard  apparatus  for  this  purpose,  however, 
and  his  results  were  so  erratic  and  so  impossible  to  correlate 
with  any  other  observed  properties  of  the  several  flours  or 
wheats  from  which  they  were  made,  that  it  seemed  best  to  dis- 
card them.  Their  publication  would  only  lead  to  confusion  and 
possibly  to  wrong  conclusions,  and  they  will,  therefore,. be  omit- 
ted from  this  report.  It  is  hoped  that  increased  assistance  may 
be  available  for  the  further  investigations  of  this  series  and  that 
complete  sponge  and  baking  tests  of  at  least  a considerable  pro- 
portion of  the  flours  which  are  manufactured  from  the  wheats 
analyzed  may  be  made.  Some  indications  of  a probable  in- 
fluence of  certain  mineral  constituents  of  the  flour,  especially 
the  soluble  phosphates,  upon  the  physical  quality  of  the  gluten 
and  the  baking  strength  of  the  flour,  have  been  discovered  and 
are  being  investigated.  These  will  be  fully  discussed  in  later 
reports  of  these  investigations. 

The  author  of  this  bulletin  desires  to  express  here  his  in- 
debtedness to  the  many  citizens  of  the  state  who  have  assisted  ’ 
in  collecting  samples;  to  Mr.  C.  W.  Lawrence,  Cerealist  of  this 
Station,  for  the  milling  of  the  wheat ; and  to  Mr.  H.  R.  Watkins, 
formerly  Assistant  Chemist  of  the  Station  for  a large  part  of 
the  analytical  work  reported  in  this  bulletin. 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


31 


The  following  bulletins  of  this  Station  are  now  available  for 
distribution.  Missing  numbers  are  out  of  print. 

General  Bulletins 

31.  Irrigation  Experiments  in  Sugar  Beet  Culture  in  Yakima  Val- 
ley. 

33.  Fiber  Flax  Investigation. 

34.  The  Russian  Thistle  in  Washington. 

37.  The  Present  Status  of  the  Russian  Thistle  in  Washington. 

4 2.  A New  Sugar  Beet  Pest  and  Other  Insects  Attacking  Beets. 

4 8.  Mechanical  Ration  Computer. 

49.  Alkali  and  Alkali  Soils. 

60.  A Report  on  the  Range  Conditions  of  Central  Washington. 

67.  Some  Notes  Concerning  Halphen’s  Test  For  Cotton  Seed  Oil. 

70.  Powdery  Mildews  in  Washington. 

71.  Preserving  Eggs. 

72.  The  Chemical  Composition  of  Washington  Forage  Crops. 

74.  Two  Insects  Pests  of  the  Elm. 

77.  The  Codling  Moth  in  the  Yakima  Valley. 

78.  The  Goat  Industry  in  Western  Washington. 

79.  Steer  Feeding  Under  Eastern  Washington  Conditions. 

80.  Growing  Alfalfa  Without  Irrigation  in  Washington. 

81.  The  Codling  Moth  in  Eastern  Washington. 

82.  I — Chemical  Composition  of  Washington  Forage  orops. 

II — Analyses  of  Concentrated  Feeding  Stuffs. 

83.  Some  Important  Plant  Diseases. 

84.  Wheat  and  Flour  Investigations — Crop  of  1905. 

86.  The  Codling  Moth  in  1907. 

89.  A History  of  the  Hybrid  Wheats. 

91.  Forest,  Shade  and  Ornamental  Trees  in  Washington. 

90.  WTheat  and  Flour  Investigations,  Crops  of  1906-1907. 

92.  Cherries  in  Washington. 

Popular  Bulletins 

1.  Announcements. 

4.  Notes  on  Swine  Management. 

6.  The  Milling  Quality  of  Washington  Wheats. 

7.  Soil  Survey  of  the  State. 

8.  Orchard  Cover  Crops. 

9.  Some  New  Hybrid  Wheats. 

10.  Silo  Construction. 

11.  Commercial  Potato  Growing. 

12.  The  Care  of  Milk  on  the  Farm. 

14.  Planting  an  Apple  Orchard. 

18.  Growing  Raspberries  and  Blackberries  in  Washington. 

19.  The  Use  of  Fertilizer  Lime. 

20.  Summary  of  Experiment  Station  Work. 

:2 1.  Hybrid  Wheats'. 

.22.  Tillage  and  Its  Relation  to  Soil  Moisture. 

2 3.  Trees  in  Washington. 

24.  Pruning  Apple  Trees. 

2 5.  Gooseberries  for  the  Home  Garden  or  Commercial  Orchard. 

2 6.  Currants  for  the  Home  Garden  or  Commercial  Plantation. 

27.  Spraying  Calendar  for  1910. 

28.  Sulphur-Lime  Wash. 

29.  Milling  Quality  of  Washington  WTheat. 

:30.  Spraying  for  Codling  Moth. 


. 


' 

>1  . ' 


■ 

' 

- 


The  State  College  of  Washington 

AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 


PULLMAN,  WASHINGTON 


DEPARTMENT  OR  HORTICULTURE 


Cherries  in  Washington 

By  W.  S.  THORNBER 


BULLETIN  No.  92 
1910 


Figure  i.  A well-cared-for  Cherry  Orchard. 


All  bulletins  of  this  station  sent  free  to  cittzens  of  the  State  on  application  to  director 


BOARD  OF  CONTROL 


R.  C.  McCROSKEY , President  - - Garfield 

D.  S.  TROY,  Vice-President  - Chimacum 

E.  A.  BRYAN,  Secretary  Ex-Officio  - - - Pullman 

President  of  the  College. 

LEE  A.  JOHNSON Sunnyside 

J.  J.  BROWNE Spokane 

PETER  McGREGOR, Colfax 


-o- 


STATION  STAFF 


R.  W.  THATCHER,  M.  A. 

ELTON  FULMER,  M.  A. 

S.  B.  NELSON,  D.  V.  M. 

0.  L.  WALLER,  Ph.  M.  - - 
R.  K.  BEATTIE,  A.  M. 
WALTER  S.  THORNBER,  M.  S. 
A.  L.  MELANDER,  M.  S. 
LEONARD  HEGNAUER,  M.  S., 
W.  H.  LAWRENCE,  M.  S. 
w.  t.  McDonald,  m.  s.  a.,  - 

C.  C.  THOM,  M.  S., 

H.  B.  HUMPHREY,  Ph.  D., 
ALEX  CARLYLE, 

W.  T.  SHAW,  B.  S„ 

GEORGE  A.  OLSON,  M.  S., 

E.  L.  PETERSON,  B.  S., 

REX  N.  HUNT,  M.  S., 

W.  H.  HEIN,  M.  A., 

W.  L.  HADLOCK,  B.  S., 

M.  A.  YOTLIERS,  B.  S.  - 


Director  and  Chemist 
State  Chemist 
V eterinarian 
Irrigation  Engineer 
Botanist 
Horticulturist 
Entomologist 
Agronomist 
Plant  Pathologist 
Animal  Husbandman 
Soil  Physicist 
- Plant  Pathologist 
- Cerealist 

- Assistant  Zoologist 

- Assistant  Chemist 
Assistant  Soil  Physicist 

Assistant  Botanist 
Assistant  Horticulturist 
Assistant  Chemist 
Assistant  Entomologist 


INTRODUCTION. 


During  the  last  ten  or  twelve  years  the  cherry  industry  of 
the  Northwest  has  made  rapid  progress  and  now  is  ranked  as 
one  of  the  leading  horticultural  industries  of  this  state.  A 
few  sections  have  become  famous  for  their  cherries;  others 
have  failed.  There  are  many  valleys  yet  to  be  tried. 

Only  recently  have  the  possibilities  of  this  crop  as  a com- 
mercial proposition  been  realized.  With  the  coming  into  use 
of  the  refrigerator  car  for  soft  fruits,  the  invention  of  the  Pony 
refrigerator,  the  erection  of  canneries  and  the  origin  of  several 
particularly  firm,  good  shipping,  high  quality  western  varieties 
the  industry  received  an  impetus  that  placed  it  at  once  with 
the  foremost  fruit  crops. 

With  the  invention  of  a cheap  method  of  pitting,  especially 
sour  cherries,  another  profitable  and  wide  field  of  cherry 
growing  will  open  to  the  Northwest.  These  varieties  grow  ex- 
ceedingly well  and  produce  abundantly  in  practically  all  parts 
of  the  Northwest  but  there  is  a very  limited  market  for  them 
in  the  fresh  state  and  labor  is  entirely  too  high  for  hand  pit- 
ting for  drying  purposes. 

According  to  Commissioner  F.  A.  Huntley’s  report  for  the 
year  ending  1908,  there  are  10,688  acres  of  cherries  in  the  State 
of  Washington  alone  and  many  more  acres  are  being  prepared 
for  planting;  and  the  wholesale  average  market  prices  for 
“Spokane,  Seattle  and  Tacoma”  were  $1.25  to  $1.50  per  ten- 
pound  box  in  May  to  from  50  cents  to  $1.25  per  ten-pound  box 
in  August.  During  the  season  of  1908,  the  first  week  in  August 
$2.00  per  box  was  paid  for  the  best  grades,  the  highest  average 
for  any  week  of  the  season. 

The  sweet  cherry  as  a crop  is  a very  heavy  producer  in 
most  parts  of  the  state.  The  only  serious  drawback  is  late 
spring  frosts  and  for  this  reason  every  precaution  possible 
should  be  taken  to  select  as  nearly  as  possible  frost  free  loca- 
tions for  the  growing  of  this  crop.  Smudges  and  orchard  heat- 
ers are  being  employed  and  in  many  sections  will  be  of  great 
value,  but  the  early  precaution  is  by  far  the  safest. 


4 


State  College  Experiment  Station 


Location. 

The  cherry  as  a tree  is  generally  hardy  and  readily  adapts 
itself  to.  varied  conditions.  However,  it  is  extremely  suscepti- 
ble to  early  fall  injury  if  caught  by  a hard  freeze  before  the 
new  wood  has  had  an  opportunity  to  ripen  thoroughly  or  ma- 
ture. This  injury  is  frequently  called  “winter  killing,”  but  in 
reality  is  due  to  poor  location,  unsatisfactorj^  site  or  late  sum- 
mer or  fall  growth. 

Probably  the  most  critical  time  in  cherry  culture  is  that 
period  preceding,  during  and  immediately  following  the  bloom- 
ing of  the  trees.  Heavy  losses  occur  annually  during  this  time 
of  the  year  which  possibly  might  have  been  avoided  if  proper 
judgment  had  been  used  in  the  selection  of  the  site  or  loca- 
tion for  the  orchard.  Cherry  trees  bloom  from  two  to  eight  days 
later  on  northern  slopes  than  they  do  on  southern  slopes  an  1 
are  always  less  subject  to  frost  injury  on  rolling,  slightly  ele- 
vated or  sloping  than  on  flat  lands.  Good  atmospheric  drain- 
age is  one  of  the  essentials  to  successful  cherry  culture. 

Soil. 

Soil:  The  cherry  can  be  profitably  grown  on  a variety  of 
soils,  but  for  long  life  of  tree  and  large,  regular  crops  it  shr.ild 
have  a rather  dry  sandy  loam  to  light  clay  loam,  rich  in  mineral 
plant  foods  but  poor  in  nitrogen.  The  subsoil  should  be  porous, 
well  drained  and  neither  clay  hard  pan  nor  dry  gravel.  A 
stiff  clay  soil  rich  in  nitrogenous  plant  food  produces  a woody, 
rarely  productive,  short  lived  tree;  while  a poorly  drained  s.,il 
rarely  or  ever  produces  a healthy,  productive  tree.  Tie  merry 
is  a heavy  feeder  and  should  be  encouraged  in  growth  while 
young,  but  wood  growth  should  be  discouraged  in  the  old  or 
bearing  tree. 

A first  class  cherry  soil  should  contain  abundance  of  free 
moisture  during  the  early  spring  months  and  up  to  the  time 
of  the  ripening  of  the  fruit;  afterward  only  enough  moisture 
to  keep  the  tree  growing  slowly  or  keep  the  wood  plump. 

Planting. 

Distance:  The  variety,  soil,  climate  and  rainfall  or  irriga- 
tion all  combine  as  factors  in  governing  the  distance  apart  that 


Bulletin  No.  92 —Cherries  in  Washington. 


5 


trees  should  be  planted.  The  sweet  cherry  on  rich  soil,  with  a* 
reasonable  amount  of  moisture,  requires  from  thirty  to  forty 
feet ; while  sour  cherries  under  the  same  conditions  will  not  re- 
quire more  than  twenty  to  twenty-five  feet.  On  the  rich  moist 
soils  of  Western  Washington,  the  sweet  cherry  should  be  given 
plenty  of  room  for  full  development  and  will  require  from! 
thirty-five  to  forty  feet.  The  irrigated  valleys  with  light  sandy 
soils  and  more  or  less  of  a scarcity  of  nitrogen  will  produce 
good  cherries  at  from  twenty-five  to  twenty-eight  feet;  while 
sweet  cherries  on  the  rich  uplands  of  Eastern  Washington 
should  have  from  twenty-eight  to  thirty- two  feet  in  order  to 
be  sure  of  sufficient  moisture. 

Heavy  fruit  production  at  the  expense  of  wood  growth 
is  common  in  the  valleys,  while  the  reverse  is  true  in  Western 
Washington. 

The  cherry  should  always  be  planted  alone  and  never  as  a 
filler  or  with  a filler  for  any  other  orchard  tree  since  it  requires 
an  entirely  different  method  of  cultivation.  It  is  a late  spring 
and  early  summer  grower  and  matures  its  crop  very  early  in 
the  season  and  should  naturally  take  the  remainder  of  the  sea- 
son for  the  development  of  fruit  spurs  and  buds  and  the  ma- 
turing of  the  wood.  It  is  wrong  to  expect  it  to  maintain  a 
growing  activity  for  a period  as  long  as  the  apple  or  peach 
and  so  for  this  reason  should  never  be  planted  with  these  trees. 

Before  planting  the  trees  the  soil  should  be  thoroughly 
subdued,  properly  graded  if  irrigation  is  necessary  and  placed 
in  perfect  surface  tillage. 

It  matters  little  whether  the  square  or  hexagonal  plan  be 
used.  Each  has  its  advantages.  The  more  important  advant- 
age of  each  is  that  the  square  places  the  rows  a little  farther 
apart ; while  the  hexagonal  permits  the  planting  of  from  six  to 
eight  trees  more  per  acre. 

Time : In  sections  where  spring  comes  on  very  early,  the 
winters  are  mild,  and  rain  continues  until  late  in  the  season  so 
that  the  working  of  the  soil  is  retarded,  fall  planting  may  be 
practiced  to  advantage,  providing  the  soil  can  be  properly  pre- 
pared and  well  ripened  stock  be  secured.  In  practically  all 
other  sections  of  the  state  and  especially  where  there  is  danger 
of  very  cold  winter  weather,  early  spring  planting  is  best  for 


6 


State  College  Experiment  Station 


cherry  trees.  Secure  the  stock  in  the  fall,  carefully  heel  in  near 
to  where  it  is  to  be  planted,  cover  the  tops  if  necessary  and 
plant  as  soon  as  the  soil  can  be  properly  worked  in  the  spring. 

Method:  Dig  the  holes  wide  enough  so  that  the  roots  will 
go  in  without  crowding,  and  deep  enough  so  that  the  trans- 
planted tree  will  stand  from  one  to  two  inches  deeper  than  it 
formerly  stood  in  the  nursery.  Prune  back  all  bruised  or  brok- 
en roots  with  a sharp  pruner  or  knife,  cutting  in  such  a manner 
so  as  to  have  the  cut  surfaces  rest  on  the  bottom  of  the  hole. 
Lean  the  top  slightly  toward  the  south  or  southwest  if  the  pre- 
vailing winds  come  from  that  direction ; otherwise  plant  straight 
or  at  least  never  lean  the  tree  away  from  the  two  o’clock  sun  or 
there  will  be  danger  of  sun  scald.  Fill  the  hole  from  one-third 
to  one-half  full  of  moist,  rich  soil,  or  at  least  cover  the  roots, 
and  tramp  it  until  firm.  Fill  the  remainder  of  the  hole  with 
loose  earth,  tramp  lightly  and  leave  the  top  smooth  and  levelj 
if  planting  in  the  spring,  but  slightly  high,  if  planting  in  the 
fall.  If  water  is  used  at  all  in  the  transplanting  of  trees,  it 
should  be  applied  to  the  holes  the  day  before  planting  and  per- 
mitted to  soak  away  thoroughly  before  being  disturbed  unless 
it  is  used  to  firm  the  soil  instead  of  so  much  tramping,  as  is 
commonly  practiced  in  the  irrigated  sections.  And  then  as 
soon  as  the  surface  dries  it  should  be  gone  over  with  an  iron 
rake  and  carefully  loosened  up  or  leveled  as  is  necessary. 

Trees : First  class  one  year  old  trees  are  best  for  planting. 
However,  low  headed  two  year  old  trees  may  be  satisfactorily 
used  provided  they  are  not  overgrown  and  their  root  systems 
ar^  good.  A one  year  old  tree  is  easier  to  transplant,  it  can  be 
headed  as  desired  and  usually  develops  into  a better  and  longer- 
lived  tree  than  an  older  one. 


Propagation  and  Stocks. 

The  greatest  care  possible  in  the  cutting  of  bud  sticks  for 
the  propagation  of  a stock  of  cherry  trees  should  be  exercised. 
Only  vigorous,  healthy  trees  should  be  propagated  from  and 
never  under  any  condition  should  a diseased  or  shy  bearer 
be  used  as  a bud  stick  producer.  The  average  sweet  cherry  tree 


Bulletin  No.  92. — Cherries  in  Washington. 


7 


is  normally  healthy  and  productive,  but  it  is  not  difficult  to 
find  weak,  diseased,  or  unproductive  strains  or  individuals  of 
our  most  common  sorts. 

It  is  better  to  propagate  from  mature  bearing  trees  than 
young  growing  trees  as  the  stock  tends  to  come  into  full  bear- 
ing earlier  and  produce  firmer,  better  fruits. 

Cherries  may  be  grown  or  a number  of  different  stocks  or 
roots,  but  the  more  contmon  ones  are  Mahaleb,  a wild  species 
from  southern  Europe  and  Mazzard,  a wild  sweet  cherry  also 
from  Europe,  producing  small,  worthless  fruit.  The 
Mahaleb  makes  the  best  stock  for  the  Kentish  or  sour  cherry 
and,  while  commonly  used  is  not  entirely  satisfactory  for  the 
sweet  varieties. 

It  is  hardier  and  does  better  tljan  the  Mazzard  on  dry  and 
unsatisfactory  soil,  but  in  climates  similar  to  ours  the  Mazzard 
produces  the  better  long-lifed  tree  of  the  two.  The  Mazzard 
is  more  difficult  to  bud  upon  and  the  trees  are  harder  to  trans- 
plant, but  even  with  these  disadvantages  it  is  by  for  the  more 
satisfactory  root  for  the  sweet  cherry. 

Top  Working  — In  sections  where  the  body  of  the  tree  of 
certain  varieties  tends  to  suffer  severely  from  sun  scald,  cherry 
canker  and  gumosis  troubles,  it  is  frequently  advantageous  to 
top  work  these  varieties  onto  some  resistant,  hardy  variety  or 
species  and  thereby  avoid  this  difficulty.  The  May  Duke,  Late 
Duke,  Mazzard  and  Native  Western  cherries  all  make  excellent 
stems  upon  which  to  work  the  sweet  cherry  while  the  Mahaleb 
makes  an  excellent  trunk  for  the  sour  sorts.  The  top  working 
may  be  done  the  same  as  for  apples  by  either  side  or  cleft 
grafting;  or,  better  yet,  by  budding.  If  grafting  is  employed  it 
must  be  done  very  early  in  spring  while  the  buds  of  both  scion 
and  stock  are  still  dormant. 

Cultivation. 

Whatever  may  be  the  treatment  of  the  old  bearing  orchard 
the  young  cherry  orchard  should  receive  nothing  but  the  very 
best  of  clean  culture  from  the  time  it  is  planted  until  it  is 
three  to  five  years  old.  The  grass  o*r  mulch  system  is  probably 


8 


State  College  Experiment  Station 


all  right  for  the  old  tree  but  when  it  is  necessary  to  produce 
wood  growth  and  frame  work  nothing  can  do  it  like  clean 
culture.  The  young  orchard  can  be  advantageously  cropped 
for  the  first  few  years  without  injuring  the  trees  in  the  least, 
providing  cover  crops  can  be  sown  or  cultivation  or  irrigation 
can  cease  by  the  middle  of  August  or  at  the  latest  by  the  first 
of  September.  The  cropping  of  the  young  orchard  where  no 
cover  crops  are  used  produces  a better  and  more  developed 
growth  than  clean  culture  alone. 

The  cultivation  of  the  bearing  orchard  should  start  in  the 
spring  just  as  soon  as  the  soil  is  ready  to  work,  if  no  cover 
crops  are  used,  by  plowing  or  disking  and  immediately  pul- 
verizing or  clod  mashing  and  harrowing  until  the  surface  is 
firm  and  smooth.  After  once  getting  the  soil  in  first  class 
shape,  harrow  or  surface  cultivate  every  ten  days  or  two  weeks 
and  after  every  rain  until  the  middle  of  July  to  first  of 
August  when  a cover  crop  should  be  sown  to  take  up  the  sur- 
plus moisture,  temporarily  appropriate  the  available  plant 
food  and  cause  the  newly  made  wood  to  ripen  up  thoroughly 
before  winter. 

If  the  trees  have  been  making  a poor,  unsatisfactory 
growth  the  cover  crop  should  be  vetch,  Canada  peas  or  Crimson 
clover  (preferably  Hairy  vetch),  but  if  the  growth  is  good 
or  the  tendency  is  toward  wood  production  at  the  expense 
of  the  fruit,  then  the  cover  crop  should  be  fall  rye  or  winter 
wheat  for  the  purpose  of  checking  growth  and  adding  humus 
to  the  soil. 

If  irrigation  is  practiced,  it  must  not  be  overdone  late  in  the 
season  on  bearing  trees,  nor  should  any  water  be  applied  to  the 
trees  after  the  fruit  begins  to  color  and  until  it  is  harvested,  or 
the  quality  of  the  fruit  will  be  materially  lowered  and  its 
ability  to  keep  and  ship  very  seriously  injured. 

The  cherry  blossoms  very  early  in  the  spring,  matures 
its  crop  in  June  or  July  and  should  have  from  then  until  fall 
to  develop  fruit  buds  and  ripen  its  wood.  A bearing  tree 


Bulletin  No.  92. — Cherries  in  Washington. 


9 


should  not  be  permitted  to  make  a heavy  summer  growth. 
This  is  always  at  the  expense  of  the  future  crop.  The  fruit 
buds  which  produce  the  largest  and  best  fruit  are  developed 
during  the  preceding  June  and  July  and  not  late  in  the  fall  or 
just  before  they  blossom  in  spring. 

Pruning. 

During  the  first  four  years  of  a young  cherry  tree’s  life 
in  the  orchard  it  should  be  carefully,  systematically  and 
regularly  pruned.  By  this  time  it  should  be  large  enough  and 
its  frame  work  so  well  developed  that  the  future  pruning 
would  consist  largely  of  the  removal  of  dead,  diseased,  broken 
or  crossed  limbs  and  an  occasional  heading  back  or  thinning 
out  of  the  fruiting  wood.  Pruning  for  the  production  of  wood 
after  a tree  starts  to  bear  should  not  be  necessary  as  there  is 
a relationship  existing  between  the  amount  of  wood  produced 
and  the  size  of  the  crop  borne,  in  the  case  of  most  varities  of 
cherries. 

How  to  Prune — The  first  and  most  essential  pruning  of  a 
cherry  tree  should  take  place  just  previous  to  the  beginning 
of  its  second  year’s  growth.  When  one  year  old  trees  are 
planted  in  the  orchard,  immediately  after  transplanting  is  a 
good  time  to  give  it  this  pruning.  All  lateral  branches  should 
be  cut  off  close  and  the  top  headed  back  to  from  24  to  36 
inches  from  the  ground.  The  purpose  of  this  pruning  is  to 
establish  a low  headed  spreading  tree  rather  than  a high  up- 
right tree.  The  young  tree  will  require  no  further  pruning  un- 
til the  beginning  of  the  third  year’s  growth  unless  a very 
strong  sprout  springs  from  the  root  or  on  the  main  stem  six 
inches  or  less  from  the  ground,  necessitating  immediate  re- 
moval. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  third  year’s  growth  from  three  to 
five  of  the  best  branches  should  be  selected  to  form  the  frame 
work  of  the  tree.  The  remainder  should  be  cut  off  and  those 
headed  back  to  from  one-third  to  one-half  of  their  original 
length,  cutting  to  outer  buds  always  and  maintaining  the 
most  central  one  as  a leader,  which  should  be  from  four  to  six 
inches  longer  than  the  rest.  These  branches  should  be  selected 
with  special  reference  to  their  position  on  the  main  stem  and 


10 


State  College  Experiment  Station 


to  one  another.  They  should  have  wide  angles,  no  two  should 
be  opposite  and  be  as  far  apart  as  possible  on  the  main  stem. 

The  pruning  for  the  fourth  and  fifth  .year’s  growth  should 
be  very  much  the  same  as  for  the  third,  using  special  care  to 
thin  the  tops  and  cut  back  in  such  a manner  as  to  spread  the 
top  as  much  as  possible.  After  this  only  the  necessary 
pruning  should  be  done,  as  heavy  pruning  tends  to  produce 
wood  growth  which  is  not  at  all  desirable  in  bearing  trees. 

When  to  Prune — The  pruning  of  young  growing  trees 
should  be  done  late  in  the  winter  or  early  in  the  spring,  but 
never  early  in  the  winter  as  there  is  a strong  tendency  for  the 
best  results  in  our  experiments  show  that  pruning  immediately 
after  the  crop  has  been  harvested  gives  more  favorable  results. 
This,  in  reality,  amounts  to  summer  pruning  and  tends  to  check 
growth  as  well  as  expose  all  prospective  fruits  spurs  and  their 
leaves  to  the  sun  light  which  are  very  desirable  features. 

Harvesting  and  Marketing. 

Western  methods  of  harvesting  and  marketing  the  cherry 
like  other  horticultural  crops  has  revolutionized  the  industry, 
and  while  occasionally  yet  we  see  a man  clawing  his  fruit 
from  the  tree,  as  a general  rule  it  is  carefully  picked,  neatly 
packed  and  placed  upon  the  market  in  probably  the  most 
satisfactory  manner. 

For  long  distance  shipping  the  light  colored  sorts  should 
be  picked  soon  after  they  begin  to  color  and  the  dark  ones 
long  before  they  are  black  and  juicy.  They  must  not  be  poured 
from  one  receptacle  to  another  or  permitted  to  become  bruised 
in  any  manner. 

They  should  be  packed  immediately  after  picking,  pre- 
cooled and  shipped  at  once,  one  day  in  the  life  of  a cherry 
frequently  means  the  difference  between  a very  satisfactory 
or  a very  unsatisfactory  price  in  eastern  markets. 

The  western  ten  pound  box  and  four  to  six  box 
carton  make  the  ideal  way  to  handle  either  in  car  load  lots  or 
by  express  in  small  quantities. 

Gumosis. 

The  much  dreaded  gumosis  of  the  cherry  is  neither  an  in- 
sect trouble  nor  a plant  disease,  but  is  a condition  of  the  tree 


Bulletin  No.  92. — Cherries  in  Washington. 


11 


resulting  from  one  or  more  unfavorable  conditions  under  which 
the  trees  are  compelled  to  grow.  Its  first  appearance  is  usu- 
ally noticeable  in  the  toughening  or  dying  of  the  outer  bark  on 
the  tree  and  later  in  small  patches  or  quantities  of  gum  or 
juice  oozing  out  of  the  cracks  or  breaks  in  the  bark.  As  time 
passes  on,  this  usually  grows  worse,  fungi,  producing  canker 
enter  into  these  cracks  or  breaks  in  the  bark,  borers  find  a 
ready  entrance  to  the  wood  and  sooner  or  later  the  tree  be- 
comes girdled,  unfruitful  and  finally  dies,  frequently  requiring 
three  to  five  years  to  destroy  an  apparently  thrifty  tree. 

Any  of  the  following  conditions  will  cause  gumosis,  how- 
ever where  one  condition  exists  others  are  generally  found. 

1.  Poor  soil  drainage  or  too  wet  land. 

2.  Strong  late  fall  fall  growth,  followed  by  fall  or  winter 

injury. 

3.  Late  summer  tillage. 

4.  Root  injury,  caused  by  crown  gall,  woolly  aphis,  too 
deep  cultivation  or  winter  freezing. 

5.  Repeated  injuries  from  the  single-tree  or  cultivator 
handles. 

6.  A severe  attack  of  aphis,  borers  or  slugs. 

7.  Too  heavy  spring  pruning  of  the  bearing  trees. 

8.  A hard  late  spring  frost  that  kills  leaves,  blossoms, 

etc. 

9.  A severe  check  of  growth  caused  by  over  irrigation, 
under  irrigation  or  any  natural  cause. 

In  the  treating  of  gumosed  trees  the  essential  thing  is 
if  possible,  to  remove  the  difficulty.  If  the  bark  is  dry  and 
tough,  it  should  be  softened  by  a good  coat  of  whitewash  or 
a thorough  scrubbing  with  a stiff  brush  and  strong  soap  suds. 
It  is  sometimes  advantageous  to  slit  the  outer  bark  on  two 
or  three  sides  of  the  trunk  or  large  limbs,  with  the  point  of 
a penknife.  This  should  be  done  during  June  and  not  deep 
enough  to  injure  the  inner  bark  or  the  cure  will  be  worse  than 
the  disease. 

If  the  gum  has  already  started  to  ooze  out  and  harden, 
cut  away  all  patches,  at  the  same  time  removing  any  dead, 


12 


State  College  Experiment  Station 


injured  or  diseased  bark,  cleanse  with  strong  bordeaux  mixture 
and  when  dry,  coat  over  with  orange  shellac  or  lead  paint.  A 
large  percentage  of  the  trees  can  be  cured  in  this  way  and  the 
lives  of  all  greatly  lengthened  even  though  not  cured. 

VARIETIES. 

The  following  fruit  descriptions  and  notes  were  made 
from  fruit  as  it  grew  in  the  Experiment  Station  orchard  and 
shows  in  many  instances  interesting  variations  as  to  shape, 
quality  productivity,  and  general  behavior  of  these  varieties, 
as  compared  with  the  same  varieties  in  similar  reports  from 
Eastern  stations. 


Dukes  and  Morellos. 

Baender  — A dark  red,  medium  to  large,  roundish  to 
slightly  flattened  cherry  with  a heavy,  long  stem  and  long, 
smooth  pit.  The  skin  is  thin  and  tender.  The  flesh  is  firm, 
meaty,  slightly  stained  and  has  a rich  acid  flavor.  A very 
pretty  fruit,  ripening  from  the  25th  of  July  to  the  10th  of 
August. 

The  tree  is  medium  sized,  roundish,  upright,  with  erect 
branches  and  a small  amount  of  light  green  foliage  free  from 
aphis  and  disease.  A very  light  yielder  of  the  sour  cherry 
group.  Not  adapted  to  eastern  Washington  conditions. 

Bessarabian — Introduced  from  Russia  in  1885  by  Prof. 
Budd.  A medium  sized  purple  red,  roundish,  oblate  to  heart- 
shaped  fruit  with  a long,  slender  stem ; small,  round  stone ; 
thin,  tender  skin  and  a meaty,  deeply  stained,  juicy  flesh. 
The  fruit  is  of  good  quality,  of  a rich  acid  flavor  when  ripe, 
but  rather  astringent  if  picked  before  it  is  well  ripened  on  the 
tree.  It  ripens  from  the  12th  to  the  20th  of  julv  and  if  not  dis- 
turbed, it  hangs  to  the  tree  until  October. 

The  tree  is  a large,  upright,  round  topped  one,  with  long, 
slender  branches  and  narrow  but  firm  croches.  It  has  an 
-abundance  of  darlf  green  foliage  practically  free  from  insect 
■pests  and  plant  diseases.  It  has  produced  three  medium  to 
light  crops  and  two  big  crops  during  the  past  five  years.  One 
of  our  most  attractive,  but  not  profitable,  sour  cherry  trees. 


Bulletin  No.  92. — Cherries  in  Washington. 


13 


Fig.  2.  A Good  Commercial  Pack,  Very  Commonly  Used  in  Pacific 

Northwest. 


Fig.  3.  Olivet.  Our  Best  Sour  Variety,  One-third  Natural  Size. 


14 


State  College  Experiment  Station 


Brusseler  Braune — Introduced  from  Russia,  in  1883,  by 
Prof.  Budd.  A dark  to  purple  red,  heart-shaped  to  round  fruit 
with  a heavy,  long  stem,  a large  long  stone,  thin,  tender  skin 
and  a fine  grained,  meaty,  deeply  stained,  juicy  flesh.  When 
ripened  on  the  tree  it  is  of  good  quality  and  has  a rich,  very 
pleasant  sub-acid  flavor.  It  ripens  from  the  25th  of  July  to 
the  10th  of  August  and  clings  well  to  the  tree. 

The  tree  is  a small,  low,  spreading,  opentopped  tree  with 
strong  horizontal  branches  and  numerous  short,  recumbert, 
slender  twigs.  The  foliage  is  sparse,  light  green  and  while 
free  from'  insects  and  plant  diseases  is  not  at  all  healthy 
looking.  During  the  past  five  years  it  has  produced  three 
light  crops,  one  fair  crop  and  one  large  one.  Not  adapted  to 
eastern  Washington  conditions. 

Budd  533 — Probably  a seedling  of  a Russian  sort  sent  out 
by  Prof.  Budd.  A very  large,  dark  mottled  red,  roundish 
heart-shaped  fruit  with  a thick,  short  stem,  large  round  stone, 
thin,  tough  skin,  and  a firm,  yellow,  astringent,  slightly 
stained  flesh.  The  fruit  is  of  fair  quality  with  a slightly  sub- 
acid flavor  and  ripens  from  the  5th  to  the  25th  of  July,  drop- 
ping soon  after  ripening. 

The  tree  is  a small,  round-topped  tree  with  slender  re- 
cumbent branches,  good,  strong  crotches  and  only  a few  leaves, 
mostly  on  tips  of  the  branches;  a light  yielder  of  very  large 
fruit.  Not  adapted  to  our  conditions. 

Cerise  de  Ostheim — Of  Russian  introduction.  A small  to 
medium  sized,  dark  purple  red,  roundish  oblate  fruit  with  a 
long  slender  stem,  small  round  stone,  thick,  tender  skin  and 
a firm,  juicy,  meaty,  deeply  stained  flesh.  The  fruit  is  of 
good  quality  and  has  a rich  sub-acid,  almiost  sweet,  flavor 
when  dead  ripe.  It  ripens  from  the  10th  to  20th  of  July  and 
frequently  hangs  on  the  tree  until  September. 

The  tree  is  a small,  round  headed  one  with  strong,  horizon- 
tal branches  and  slender,  pendant  twigs.  The  foliage  is  light 
green,  sparse  and  not  characteristic  of  a strong,  sour  cherry 
tree.  During  the  past  five  years  it  has  produced  two  light 
crops;  two  medium  crops  and  one  heavy  crop.  Neither  large 
enough  nor  productive  enough  to  be  of  commercial  value. 


Bulletin  No.  92. — Cherries  in  Washington. 


15 


Fig  4.  Late  Duke.  One  of  Our  Best  Hardy  Cherries.  One-half 

Natural  Size. 

Double  Natte — Introduced  from  Russia.  A medium  sized, 
dark  purple  red,  oblate  to  heart-shaped  fruit  with  a very  long 
stem,  roundish  lop-sided  stone,  thin,  tender  skin  and  a light 
red,  soft,  meaty  flesh  of  good  quality  and  rich,  pleasant,  acid 
flavor.  It  ripens  from  July  10th  to  the  20th,  but  remains  in 
good  condition  upon  the  tree  until  September,  or  even  later. 

The  tree  is  large,  vigorous,  compact  and  rather  flat 
topped.  The  branches  have  strong  crotches,  are  horizontal 
and  have  numerous  pendant  twigs.  The  foliage  is  dark  green, 
abundant,  clean  and  healthy.  During  the  past  five  years  it 
has  produced  two  light  crops;  one  medium  crop  and  two  very 
large  crops.  Not  considered  valuable  in  eastern  Washington. 

Dyehouse — First  found  growing  on  the  grounds  of  Mr.  Dye- 
house,  of  Lincoln  County,  Kentucky.  A rather  small,  bright 
red,  roundish  oblate  cherry,  with  a small  round  stone,  short, 
heavy  stem,  thin  tender  skin  and  a soft,  juicy  flesh.  It  ripens 
from  the  20th  to  the  28th  of  July  and  remains  in  good  condition 
upon  the  tree  for  two  or  three  weeks. 


16 


State  College  Experiment  Station 


The  tree  is  a small,  round  topped  tree  with  slender,  wil- 
lowy branches  and  an  abundance  of  dark  green  leaves  which 
are  practically  free  from  all  kinds  of  insect  pests  and  plant 
diseases.  While  our  trees  of  this  variety  are  still  young,  they 
give  promise  of  being  a first  class  variety  for  commercial 
planting.  A very  heavy  annual  bearer. 

Early  Morello — Imported  from  Russia  by  Prof.  Budd,  in 
1883.  A medium  to  small,  bright  red  mottled  with  dark  crim- 
son, roundish  oblate  fruit  with  a rather  short  stem,  small  round 
stone,  thick  tender  skin  and  a firm  juicy,  yellow  flesh.  It  is 
of  fair  quality  and  has  a brisk  acid  flavor.  It  ripens  from  the 
last  week  in  June  to  the  first  week  in  July,  but  hangs  on  the 
tree  until  the  first  of  September. 

The  tree  is  a large,  round  topped,  spreading,  with  long 
strong,  horizontal  branches  and  numerous  slender  twigs.  Its 
foliage  is  rather  thin,  of  dark  green  color,  but  free  from  in- 
sects and  plant  diseases.  During  the  past  five  years  it  has 
produced  three  heavy  crops  and  two  medium  sized  crops.  Its 
soft  small,  juicy  fruit  makes  it  unprofitable  for  commercial 
use. 


Early  Richmond — Introduced  from  Europe.  A medium 
sized,  bright  red,  roundish  oblate  fruit  with  a short,  thick  stem, 
very  small  round  stone,  thin,  tender  skin  and  a soft,  juicy 
flesh.  The  fruit  is  of  good  quality  and  has  a mild  pleasant, 
sub-acid  flavor.  It  ripens  from  the  2nd  to  thel6th  of  July  and 
hangs  well  to  the  tree  until  the  first  of  September. 

The  tree  is  medium  sized,  round  topped  with  horizontal 
branches  and  long  pendant  twigs,  a very  poor,  short  lived 
tree.  The  foliage  is  abundant,  dark  green  and  free  from  aphis 
and  plant  diseases.  During  the  past  five  years  it  has  produced 
one  fair  crop  and  four  very  large  crops  of  fruit.  One  of  the 
oldest  and  most  popular  sour  cherries  in  cultivation.  It  is 
what  is  commonly  known  as  the  “ Kentish”  or  “Pie”  cherry. 
One  of  our  most  satisfactory  sour  cherries. 

English  Morello — Introduced  from  Europe.  A medium 
sized,  purple  to  black  red,  roundish,  oblate  fruit  with  a thick, 
short  stem,  small  round  stone,  thin,  tender  skin  and  a meaty. 


Bulletin  No.  92. — Cherries  in  Washington. 


17 


juicy,  light  red  flesh.  The  fruit  is  of  fair  quality  and  of  a 
rich  acid  to  slightly  astringent  flavor,  ripening  from  the  6th  to 
the  20th  of  August. 

Te  tree  is  medium  sized,  spreading  with  slender  branches 
and  has  dark  green  foliage  which  is  free  from  aphis  and  plant 
diseases.  During  the  past  five  years  this  variety  has  produced 
two  fair  crops  and  three  heavy  crops.  One  of  the  best  of  the 
Morello  type. 

Gibb — A large,  dark  crimson  to  purplish  red,  roundish 
heart-shaped  fruit  with  a heavy  stem,  thick,  tender  skin,  a 
large  oblong  stone,  and  dark  red,  meaty  flesh.  The  fruit  is  of 
good  quality;  has  a rich  sub-acid  flavor  and  ripens  from  the 
25th  of  July  to  the  1st  of  August. 

The  tree  is  a medium  sized,  round  headed,  open  topped 
tree  with  long,  thick  branches  and  slender  pendant  twigs. 
The  foliage  is  medium  sized,  light  green  and  not  very  abun- 
dant. During  the  past  five  years  this  variety  has  produced 
four  light  crops  and  one  heavy  crop  of  fruit.  While  an  at- 
tractive large  fruit  and  a good  strong  tree,  yet  it  is  not  con- 
sidered valuable  from  a commedcial  point  of  view. 

Heartshaped  Weischel — Imported  from  Russia  by  Prof 
Budd  in  1883.  A small  dark  red  to  purple  red,  roundish,  ob- 
long fruit  with  short  stem,  round  pointed  stone,  thin  tender 
skin,  and  a dark  colored,  firm  , meaty  flesh.  The  fruit  is  of  a 
fair  quality  with  a bitter,  astringent  flavor  until  dead  ripe 
when  it  is  fairly  good.  It  ripens  from  the  1st  to  the  15th  of 
July,  but  holds  fruit  in  good  condition  until  the  first  of 
September. 

The  tree  is  round  topped  and  spreading  with  numerous 
slender  pendant  twigs  and  an  abundance  of  beautiful  dark 
green  foliage  making  it  a very  attractive  tree.  It  is  a light 
yielder  rarely  producing  a big  crop.  Not  profitable. 

Herformize  Weischel — Same  as  Heartshaped  Weischel. 

June  Morello — Introduced  into  the  United  States  by  Prof. 
Budd  in  1883.  A medium  sized,  bright  red,  roundish,  oblate 
fruit  with  a heavy,  short  stem,  thin  skin,  small  lopsided  stone 
and  a yellow  meaty  flesh.  The  fruit  is  of  fair  quality  and 


18 


State  College  Experiment  Station 


has  a rich  sub-acid  flavor,  ripening  from  the  10th  to  the  20th  • 
of  July  and  frequently  hanging  to  the  tree  in  good  shape  until 
the  last  of  November. 

The  tree  is  vigorous,  medium  sized,  has  a dense,  spreading 
top,  straight,  strong  branches  and  numerous  pendant  twigs. 
The  foliage  is  dark  green,  abundant  and  practically  free  from 
aphis  and  plant  disease.  During  the  past  five  years  it  has 
produced  one  good  crop  and  four  very  light  or  almost  failures. 
Its  quality  makes  it  desirable,  but  its  yielding  habits  make 
it  unprofitable. 

Large  Montmorency — Probably  an  American  variety  of  the 
Montmorency  family.  A large,  deep  crimson,  roundish  oblate 
fruit  with  a short,  thick  stem,  thin  tender  skin,  small,  round 
pointed  pit  and  a yellow,  juicy  flesh.  The  fruit  is  of  good 
quality ; has  a rich  acid  flavor  and  ripens  from  the  10th  to  the 
20th  of  July.  The  fruit  frequently  hangs  to  the  tree  in  good 
condition  until  the  first  of  October. 

The  tree  is  tall,  upright,  round  topped,  having  strong 
lateral  branches  and  numerous  pendant  branches.  The  foliage 
is  dark  green,  very  abundant  and  free  from  common  pests. 
During  the  past  five  years  it  has  produced  two  good  crops  and 
three  very  heavy  crops.  It  is  a regular  annual  bearer,  and 
very  popular  for  commercial  planting. 

Late  Duke — An  old  variety  of  European  origin  bearing 
large  dark  red,  roundish,  heartshaped  fruit  with  a long  stem, 
large  round  stone,  thick,  tender  skin,  and  a firm,  meaty,  light 
yellow  to  stained  flesh.  The  fruit  is  of  good  quality;  has  a 
mild,  sub-acid  flavor  and  ripens  from  the  1st  to  the  10th  of 
August.  The  fruit  frequently  hangs  to  the  tree  until  the 
middle  of  September. 

The  tree  is  a large,  upright,  open  topped  tree  with  strong 
horizontal  branches  and  long,  slender  twigs.  The  crotches  are 
wide  and  strong,  rarely  ever  splitting  under  the  heavy  loads  of 
fruit.  The  leaves  are  large,  dark  green,  abundant,  clean  and 
free  from  all  kinds  of  pests.  It  bears  heavy  annual  crops  which 
ripen  slowly  and  come  after  other  cherries  have  ripened.  One 
of  our  best  and  most  popular  cherries  for  eastern  Washington. 


Bulletin  No.  92. — Cherries  in  Washington.  19 


Fig.  5.  Bing.  One  of  Out*  Best  Commercial  Varieties.  One-half 

Natural  Size. 


Fig.  6.  Lambert.  One  of  Our  Best  Commercial  Varieties.  One-half 

Natural  Size. 


20 


State  College  Experiment  Station 


May  Duke — An  old  European  variety  of  large  size,  dark 
red  to  purplish  crimson,  almost  round  to  obtuse,  heartshaped 
fruit  with  a long  slender  stem,  medium  sized,  flat  stone,  thin, 
tender  skin  and  a reddish  purple,  tender,  melting  flesh.  The 
fruit  has  a very  good  quality,  rich  acid  flavor  and  ripens  from 
the  25th  of  June  to  the  10th  of  July. 

The  tree  is  a large,  upright,  open  topped  tree  with  long 
slender  branches,  narrow,  strong  crotches,  slender  twigs  and 
an  abundance  of  dark  green  foliage.  During  the  past  five 
years  it  has  produced  one  light  crop;  two  medium  sized  crops 
and  two  very  heavy  crops.  This  is  one  of  our  most  satisfactory 
cherries  being  comparatively  hardy,  almost  free  from  insect 
pests  and  a good  thrifty  grower. 

Montmorency — An  old  European  variety  with  large,  light 
red,  roundish,  oblate  fruit.  It  has  a thick,  short  stem,  thin 
tender  skin,  and  a yellowish,  juicy,  meaty  flesh.  The  quality 
is  good  and  the  flavor  rich,  vinous  and  pleasant.  It  ripens 
from  July  10th  to  July  25th  and  the  fruit  frequently  hangs  on 
the  tree  until  the  first  of  October. 

The  tree  is  a round,  drooping,  spreading,  low  topped  tree 
with  horizontal,  long,  strong  branches  and  slender,  recumbent 
twigs.  The  leaves  are  small,  abundant  and  dark  green.  A very 
attractive  tree  for  ornamental  planting.  During  the  past  five 
years  it  has  produced  three  small  crops ; one  medium  sized  crop 
and  one  very  large  one.  It  is  not  considered  profitable  for 
commercial  cherry  culture  as  the  fruit  is  rather  soft  and  of 
low  quality. 

Northwest — Originated  by  D.  B.  Weir,  of  Lacon,  111.  A 
medium  to  large,  dark  red  to  almost  purple,  roundish,  heart- 
shaped  fruit  with  thick,  tough  skin,  small  round  stone  and  a 
firm,  deeply  colored  flesh.  A cherry  of  excellent  quality  and 
a mild  acid  to  slightly  astringent  flavor.  One  of  our  very  best 
sour  cherries.  A heavy  annual  bearer,  producing  very  satis- 
factory crops. 

The  tree  is  a medium  sized,  round  topped  tree  with  slender, 
recumbent  branches  and  an  abundance  of  dark  green,  healthy, 
clean  foliage.  This  is  one  of  our  most  common  sour  cherries, 
doing  well  under  practically  all  conditions. 


Bulletin  No.  92. — Cherries  in  Washington. 


21 


Olivet — A variety  of  French  origin.  A medium  sized,  clear 
•dark  red,  round,  heartshaped  fruit,  with  a short  heavy  stem,  a 
thick,  but  tender  skin,  round,  medium  sized  stone  and  a tender, 
juicy  flesh.  The  fruit  is  of  excellent  quality,  rich,  spicy  flavor 
and  ripens  from  the  1st  to  the  12th  of  July. 

The  tree  is  a small,  round  headed,  open  topped  tree  with 
short,  thick,  horizontal  branches,  long  slender  twigs  and  wide 
strong  crotches.  The  foliage  is  dark  green,  abundant  and  en- 
tirely free  from  insect  pests  and  plant  diseases.  During  the 
past  five  years  this  variety  has  produced  four  large  crops  and 
one  medium  sized  crop.  This  is  by  far  our  best  sour  cherry, 
considering  the  size  of  fruit,  productiveness,  quality  and  gen- 
eral habits  of  the  tree. 

Orel  Sweet — Introduced  from  Russia.  A medium  sized, 
dark  crimson  to  purplish,  roundish,  oblate  fruit  with  a long 
slender  stem,  thick  tender  skin,  round,  small  stone  and  a 
deeply  stained,  soft  flesh.  The  fruit  is  of  good  quality  and 
has  a rich  sub-acid  flavor. 

The  tree  is  large,  unright,  with  closed  regular  top,  long 
slender,  pendant  branches  and  an  abundance  of  dark  green 
leaves.  The  fruit  ripens  from  the  20th  to  the  30th  of  July. 
During  the  past  five  years  this  variety  has  produced  two 
medium  sized  crops  and  three  large  crops  of  fruit.  It  is  one 
of  our  best,  medium  sized  but  not  sweet  cherries. 

Ostheim — Introduced  by  Prof.  Budd  from  Russia  in  1883. 
A medium  sized,  dark  red,  slightly  heartshaped  fruit  with  a 
short  stem,  small  round  stone,  thin,  tender  skin  and  yellow, 
meaty  flesh.  The  fruit  is  of  good  quality  and  has  a mild  acid 
flavor,  ripening  from  the  10th  to  the  21st  of  July. 

The  tree  is  a large,  upright,  round  topped  tree  with  strong 
upright  branches,  long  slender  twigs,  narrow  but  stout  crotches 
and  a fair  amount  of  medium  sized,  light  green  leaves.  During 
the  past  five  years  it  has  produced  four  light  crops  and  one 
very  large  crop.  While  this  variety  has  been  largely  planted, 
yet  it  is  not  considered  profitable  from  a commercial  stand- 
point. 

Ostheim  Weichsel — Of  Russian  origin.  A large,  dark  crim- 
son., roundish,  heartshaped  fruit  with  a rather  long  stem, 


22 


State  College  Experiment  Station 


medium  sized  pointed  stone,  thin,  but  tough,  skin  and  a firm, 
juicy  flesh.  The  fruit  is  of  fair  quality,  rich  acid  flavor  and 
ripens  from  the  25th  of  July  to  the  5th  of  August. 

The  tree  is  a small,  low,  round  headed  tree  with  short, 
thick  branches  and  slender,  pendant  twigs.  The  foliage  is- 
dark  green  and  not  very  abundant.  It  is  rarely  ever  attacked 
by  insect  pests  or  plant  diseases.  During  the  past  five  years 
this  variety  has  produced  one  light  crop,  two  medium  sized 
crops  and  two  big  crops  of  fruit.  It  is  not  considered  profit- 
able for  commercial  planting. 

Reine  Hortense — An  old  European  variety  which  has  been 
sold  under  many  names.  A very  large,  bright  red,  roundish, 
elongated  fruit,  with  a long,  strong  stem;  large,  long  stone, 
thick,  tender  skin  and  light  colored,  firm  juicy  flesh.  The  fruit 
is  of  good  quality  and  has  a rich  sweet  flavor  ripening  from 
the  10th  to  the  18th  of  July. 

The  tree  is  a small,  upright,  concial  shaped  tree,  with  short 
strong  branches  and  long  slender,  well  leafed  twigs.  The  foli- 
age is  a dark  green,  abundant  and  comparatively  free  from  in- 
sect pests  and  plant  diseases.  During  the  past  five  years  this 
variety  has  produced  three  small  crops  and  two  very  large 
crops  of  fruit.  On  account  of  the  softness  of  the  fruit  it  is  not 
considered  profitable  as  a commercial  cherry. 

Skalanka — Introduced  from  Russia  in  1883  by  Prof.  Budd. 
A medium  sized,  bright  crimson,  roundish,  oblate  fruit  with  a 
slender,  short  stem ; small,  round  stone ; thick,  tough  skin  and  a 
yellow,  melting,  juicy  flesh.  The  fruit  is  of  fair  quality ; has 
a rich  acid  flavor  and  ripens  from  the  1st  to  the  10th  of  July. 

The  tree  is  medium  sized;  has  a spreading,  round  top 
long,  pendulous  twigs  and  wide,  strong  crotches.  The  foliage 
is  light  green  and  very  sparse.  During  the  past  five  years  this 
variety  has  produced  two  fair  crops  and  three  very  large  crops 
of  fruit.  This  is  one  of  our  promising  cherries. 

Wragg — Originated  by  J.  Wragg,  of  Waukee,  Iowa,  as  a 
sprout  of  an  English  Morello.  A small,  dark  crimson,  roundish, 
oblong  fruit,  with  a rather  short  stem;  long,  blunt  pointed 
stone;  thin,  tender  skin  and  a slightly  stained,  meaty  flesh. 
The  fruit  is  of  rather  poor  quality;  prominently  acid,  and 
ripens  from  the  1st  to  the  10th  of  August. 


Bulletin  No.  92. — Cherries  in  Washington. 


23 


The  tree  is  a small,  low,  flat,  round  headed  tree  with  long, 
thick,  pendant  branches;  long  twigs  and  an  abundant  of  dark 
green  leaves — a typical  sour  cherry  form.  During  the  past  five 
years  it  has  produced  one  fair  crop  and  four  very  large  crops 
of  fruit.  While  not  commonly  grown  this  is  one  of  our  very 
promising  sour  cherries. 

s 

0 

HEARTS  AND  BIGARREAUS. 

Bing — A seedling  of  the  Black  Republican,  originating  in 
1875  in  the  nursery  of  Seth  Lewelling,  of  Milwaukie,  Oregon. 
A very  large,  purple  black,  obtuse,  heartshaped  fruit  with  a 
short,  heavy  stem,  small  oblong  seed,  thin,  tough  skin  and  dark 
purple  red,  meaty  ? juicy  flesh.  The  fruit  is  of  excellent  quality 
and  has  a rich  sweet,  pleasant  flavor.  It  ripens  from  June  15th 
to  25th,  in  the  valleys,  and  from  July  1st  to  12th  on  the  uplands 
and  clings  well  to  the  tree  even  after  it  has  become  dead  ripe. 

The  tree  is  a large,  vigorous,  erect  grower  with  long, 
strong,  horizontal  branches  and  good  wide  crotches.  The  foli- 
age is  dark  green  and  abundant  but  very  subject  to  shot  hole 
fungi.  The  Bing  is  one  of  our  best  trees  in  the  orchard.  During 
the  past  five  years  this  variety  has  produced  two  light  crops 
.and  three  very  heavy  crops.  It  is  undoubtedly  our  best  sweet 
cherry  for  the  uplands  of  eastern  Washington  and  one  of  the 
best  for  the  irrigated  districts  of  the  state.  Its  meaty  flesh, 
tough  skin  and  keeping  habits  makes  it  one  of  the  best  cherries 
grown  on  the  coast  for  long  distance  shipping.  In  the  irrigated 
•sections  of  the  state  it  is  a regular  bearer  of  large  annual 
crops. 

Black  Republican — A seedling  of  the  Black  Eagle,  originat- 
ing in  1860  in  the  nursery  of  Seth  Lewelling,  of  Milwaukie, 
Oregon.  A medium  to  large,  purple  to  black,  roundish,  heart- 
shaped  fruit  with  a short  heavy  stem,,  small  round,  smooth 
stone,  thick,  firm  skin  and  dark  red,  firm,  juicy,  meaty  flesh. 
The  fruit  is  of  high  quality  and  a rich,  spicy,  pleasant  sweet 
flavor.  It  ripens  from  the  15th  to  the  20th  of  June  in  the 
walleys  and  from  the  8th  to  the  18th  of  July  in  the  uplands. 


24 


State  College  Experiment  Station 


Fig.  7.  Lewelling.  A Popular  Commercial  Variety.  One-half 

Natural  Size. 


Fig.  8.  Royal  Ann.  Our  Best  Light  Colored  Cherry*  One-half 

Natural  Size. 


Bulletin  No.  92. — Cherries  in  Washington. 


25 


The  tree  is  a strong,  vigorous  grower,  producing  a beauti- 
ful pyramidal  tree  with  strong,  upright  branches  and  numerous 
twigs.  Its  leaves  are  large,  dark  green  and  abundant  but  very 
subject  to  the  shot  hole  fungi.  This  variety  is  very  productive 
in  the  valleys  and  is  very  much  liked  as  a commercial  cherry, 
but  it  is  not  adapted  to  the  conditions  of  the  upland  districts. 

Black  Tartarian — Of  Russian  origin.  A medium  to  large 
purple  almost  black,  obtusely  heartshaped  fruit  with  a long 
slender  stem,  rather  large  smooth  stone,  a thick  tender  skin, 
and  a meaty,  firm,  deeply  colored  flesh.  The  fruit  is  of  good 
quality,  has  a rich  sweet,  pleasant  flavor  and  ships  well.  It 
ripens  from  July  10th  to  the  20th  and  hangs  well  to  the  tree. 

The  tree  is  a large,  thrifty,  upright  grower  with  numerous 
strong,  erect  branches  and  crotches  and  abundance  of  dark 
green  beautiful  foliage  which  is  free  from  diseases  but  annually 
severely  attacked  by  the  black  aphis  of  the  cherry.  In  the 
lower  alittudes  and  western  Washington  it  is  very  productive 
but  the  fruit  buds  are  too  frequently  killed  to  be  a profitable 
sort  for  the  uplands  of  eastern  Washington.  During  the  past 
five  years  it  has  produced  specimens  four  times  and  a light 
crop  once.  While  a fruit  of  very  high  quality,  it  is  not  adapted 
for  general  planting. 

California  Advance — Originated  by  W.  H.  Chapman,  of 
Napa,  California.  A medium  to  large  yellowish  red,  heart- 
shaped  fruit  with  a rather  long  stem,  large  irregular  stone, 
thick,  rather  tough  skin,  and  a firm,  light  colored,  juicy  flesh. 
It  has  a rich  sweet  flavor  and  ripens  from  June  20th  to  July 
1st. 

The  tree  is  an  erect  grower  with  strong  branches,  abundance 
of  dark  green  leaves  and  is  practically  free  from  insect  pests 
and  plant  diseases.  During  the  past  five  years  it  has  produced 
three  very  large  and  two  fair  crops. 

Coe  Transparent — Originated  in  Middletown,  Connecticut. 
A medium  sized,  pale  amber  to  light  red,  roundish  oblong 
fruit  with  a rather  long  stem,  large  smooth  stone,  very  thin 
tender  skin  and  a light  colored  meaty  flesh.  The  fruit  is  of 
good  quality,  mild  subacid  to  sweet  flavor,  ripening  from  the 
15th  of  June  to  the  1st  of  July  on  the  uplands. 


26 


State  College  Experiment  Station 


The  tree  is  thrifty,  large,  tall,  upright,  open  topped  with 
strong  horizontal  to  upright  branches  and  an  abundance  of 
dark  green  beautiful  foliage.  While  it  is  comparatively  free 
from  plant  diseases,  yet  it  is  always  seriously  affected  by  the 
black  aphis  of  the  cherry.  It  ripens  from  a week  to  ten  days 
earlier  than  any  other  cherry  and  is  always  seriously  raided 
by  the  birds.  It  is  valuable  for  this  reason  since  they  get  a 
fill  of  this  early  fruit  and  do  not  molest  the  later  sorts.  During 
the  past  five  years  it  has  produced  three  light  and  two  good 
crops  of  fruit.  Its  thin,  very  tender  skin  makes  it  un- 
desirable for  shipping  purposes. 

Elton — An  old  sweet  cherry  of  European  origin  having  a 
medium  sized  light  yellow  mottled  with  red  and  a round  heart- 
shaped  fruit.  The  stem  is  long  and  heavy ; the  stone  small  and 
round ; the  skin  thick  and  almost  white.  It  ripens  from  the  15th 
to  the20th  of  June  in  the  valleys  and  produces  regular  medium 
sized  crops. 

The  tree  is  vigorous,  large  and  upright  with  abundance 
of  dark  green  foliage.  Valuable  for  early  use  and  close  markets. 

Galopin — Introduced  from  France.  A medium  to  large, 
clear,  bright  red,  round  heartshaped  fruit  with  a short,  heavy 
stem,  thin  tender  skin,  large,  flat,  irregular  shaped  stone  and  a 
stringy  almost  meaty  flesh.  It  is  of  fair  quality;  has  a rich 
subacid  flavor  and  ripens  from  the  15th  to  25th  of  July. 

The  tree  is  a strong,  upright  grower  with  an  abundance 
of  dark  green  foliage  practically  free  from  orchard  pests. 
During  the  past  five  years  it  has  produced  two  very  light 
crops;  one  fair  crop  and  two  very  heavy  crops.  Not  considered 
valuable  for  commercial  planting. 

Governor  Wood — Originated  in  Cleveland.  Ohio.  A medium 
sized  light  yellow^  and  bright  red,  oblong,  heart  shaped  fruit 
with  a very  thin  tender  skin,  large  long  stem  and  light  yellow, 
soft  juicy  flesh.  It  is  of  good  quality  and  has  a rich  sweet 
flavor.  It  ripens  from  June  10th  to  June  20th  in  the  valleys. 

The  tree  is  vigorous,  round  headed  and  compact.  Very 
productive  in  the  valleys,  but  too  tender  for  the  uplands  of 
eastern  Washington.  A good  early  fruit  for  close  markets  but 
too  soft  for  long  shipments. 


Bulletin  No.  92. — Cherries  in  Washington. 


27 


Fig.  9.  Vilne  Sweet.  Our  Hardiest  and  Best  Light  Colored  Variety 
for  Uplands.  One-half  Natural  Size. 

\ 


Fig.  10.  Yellow’  Glass.  A Popular  Home  Orchard  Cherry.  One-third 

Natural  Size. 


28 


State  College  Experiment  Station 


Graham — A small  dark  red,  round  fruit  with  slender  stem,, 
small  round  stone,  thin  tender  skin  and  light  red,  juicy  flesh. 
A cherry  of  good  quality  and  rich  sweet  flavor.  It  ripens  from 
the  20th  to  the  29th  of  July  and  is  a regular  annual  bearer  of 
fair  to  large  crops. 

The  tree  is  medium  sized,  of  upright  growth  and  has  an 
abundance  of  dark  green,  medium  sized  leaves.  The  fruit  is 
rather  small  for  commercial  use. 

Hoskins — Originated  on  the  farm  of  C.  E.  Hoskins,  of 
Newberg,  Oregon.  A large,  roundish,  heartshaped  fruit  with 
a medium  length  stem,  large  round  stone,  thin,  rather  tough, 
skin  and  a meaty,  deeply  stained,  juicy  flesh.  The  fruit  is  of 
good  quality;  has  a rich  sweet  flavor  and  ripens  from  the  7th 
to  the  15th  of  July. 

The  tree  is  a large,  upright,  spreading,  open  topped  tree 
with  strong  crotches  and  an  abundance  of  dark  green  foliage. 
During  the  past  five  years  it  has  produced  two  light  crops, 
two  medium  sized  crops  and  one  very  large  one. 

Lambert — Originated  on  the  farm  of  J.  H.  Lambert,  of  Mil- 
waukie,  Oregon,  1888.  A large,  dark  red,  heartshaped  fruit 
with  a rather  heavy,  short  stem,  large  long  stone,  thick,  tough 
skin  and  a dark  colored,  firm,  meaty,  juicy  flesh.  The  Lambert 
is  a fruit  of  excellent  quality  and  has  a rich,  mild  sub  acid  to 
sweet  flavor.  It  ripens  from  the  10th  to  the  15th  of  June  in 
the  valleys  and  from  the  16th  to  the  25th  of  July  on  the  up- 
lands. 

The  tree  is  a vigorous,  upright  grower  with  strong 
crotches  and  limbs  and  an  abundance  of  dark  green  leaves 
which  are  usually  seriously  affected  with  the  black  aphis  of 
the  cherry.  While  it  is  not  a heavy  bearer  on  the  uplands,  yet 
it  is  a very  satisfactory  cherry.  In  the  valleys  it  is  one  of  the 
best  sorts  for  commercial  use.  During  the  past  five  years  it 
has  produced  three  light  crops  and  two  very  full  crops.  This  is 
believed  by  many  to  be  the  best  all  round  sweet  cherry  now  in 
the  west. 

Lewelling — A seedling  of  the  Black  Tartarian,  originating 
in  1872  in  the  nursery  of  Seth  Lewelling  of  Milwaukie,  Oregon, 
A very  large,  purplish  black,  heartshaped  fruit  with  a thick, 


Bulletin  No.  92. — Cherries  in  Washington.  29 

tough  skin,  rather  large  oblong  stone,  a heavy  short  stem  and 
a dark  purple,  firm,  meaty  flesh.  It  is  of  high  quality  and  has 
a rich  sweet  flavor,  ripening  about  the  20th  of  July,  but  remains 
in  good  condition  on  the  tree  for  a month  to  six  weeks. 

The  tree  is  a vigorous,  upright  grower  with  strong 
branches,  wide  crotches  and  an  abundance  of  dark  green 
foliage  which  is  frequently  attack  by  cherry  aphis  and  shot 
hole  fungi.  While  well  adapted  to  the  valley  conditions,  this 
variety  is  not  adapted  to  the  uplands.  A light  unsatisfactory 
yielder  in  our  orchard. 

Lincoln — Originated  by  Seth  Lewelling,  of  Milwaukie, 
Oregon,  in  1865.  A medium  sized,  very  dark  red,  round, 
hearshaped  fruit  with  thick,  tough  skin',  very  short  stem,  small 
round  stone  and  a firm,  deep  red,  juicy  flesh,  ripening  from  the 
20th  of  June  to  the  1st  of  July.  It  is  of  good  quality  and  has 
a rich  sweet  flavor. 

The  tree  has  a large,  spreading,  open  top  with  strong, 
erect  branches  and  good  crotches.  Its  foliage  is  dark  green 
and  abundant  but  seriously  affected  with  the  black  aphis  of 
the  cherry.  During  the  past  five  years  it  has  failed  to  produce 
a single  full  crop  and  what  does  begin  to  color  are  usually  taken 
by  the  birds  before  they  are  thoroughly  ripe.  Not  productive 
in  eastern  Washington. 

Major  Francis — Originated  by  G.  W.  Walling,  Oswego, 
Oregon,  about  1865.  A rather  large,  dark  red,  heartshaped 
fruit,  deeply  stained,  juicy  flesh.  It  has  a good  quality  and 
a sweet  rich  flavor.  The  fruit  ripens  from  the  25th  to  the  30th 
of  June  an  is  nearly  always  taken  by  the  birds  as  soon-  as  it 
colors. 

The  tree  is  a very  large,  upright  grower  with  strong,  erect 
branches  and  narrow,  but  strong  crotches.  The  foliage  is  abun- 
dant, dark  green,  but  is  usually  seriously  attacked  by  the 
black  aphis.  During  the  past  five  years  it  has  produced  three 
light  and  two  fair  crops.  While  of  good  quality  and  attractive 
color,  yet  it  is  considered  valuable  only  as  a bait  for  birds  in  or- 
der to  attract  them  from  more  valuable  sorts. 

Markirsche — A rather  large,  dark  red,  heart  shaped  fruit 
with  a short  stem,  round  smooth  stone,  thick  tender  skin  and 


30 


State  College  Experiment  Station 


a deeply  stained  meaty  flesh.  It  is  of  excellent  quality  and  has 
a very  rich  flavor.  The  fruit  ripens  from  the  15th  to  the  23rd 
of  July  frequently  clinging  to  the  tree  until  the  10th  of 
August. 

The  tree  is  a large,  thrifty,  upright,  opentopped  tree 
with  strong  crotches,  numerous  twigs  and  an  abundance  of 
dark  green  foliage  which  is  frequently  attack  by  the  cherry 
aphis.  During  the  past  five  years  it  has  produced  two  lair 
crops  and  three  big  crops  of  fruit.  Not  commonly  planted  but 
considered  by  many  to  be  a worthy  fruit. 

Ox-Heart — Of  European  origin.  A medium  sized,  light 
red  and  yellow,  long  heartshaped  fruit  with  thin  tender  skin, 
long  narrow  pointed  stone,  long  slender  stem  and  light  yellow, 
solft  melting  flesh.  The  fruit  ripens  in  the  valleys  from  the 
10th  to  the  15th  of  June  and  is  fairly  regular  as  a yielder  of, 
good  crops. 

The  tree  is  a large,  upright  grower  with  strong  branches 
and  an  abundance  of  dark  green  foliage.  It  is  frequently  at- 
tack by  the  black  aphis  of  the  cherry.  While  an  excellent 
fruit  for  home  or  near  by  markets  it  is  too  soft  for  long 
shipments. 

Plymouth  Rock — A medium  to  large  light  red  mottled, 
roundish  oblong  cherry  with  long  slender  stem,  large  long 
stone,  thin  tender  skin  and  white,  juicy,  melting  flesh.  A fruit 
of  good  quality  and  rich  sweet  flavor.  The  fruit  ripens  from 
the  4th  to  the  10th  of  July. 

The  tree  is  an  upright,  round  topped  tree  with  strong 
branches  and  an  abundance  of  dark  green  leaves.  It  is  not 
a heavy  annual  bearer. 

Rockport — Of  European  origin.  A large,  light  red,  to 
amber  colored,  round  heartshaped  fruit  with  short  stem,  thin 
tough  skin,  long,  irregular  stone  and  sweet  flavor. 

The  tree  is  a large,  regular,  round  headed  tree  with  long 
slender,  upright  branches  and  horizontal  twigs.  The  foliage 
is  dark  green  and  abundant  but  very  seriously  troubled  with 
the  black  aphis  of  the  cherry.  During  the  past  five  years  this 
variety  has  produced  four  light  crops  and  one  big  crop.  While 
a thrifty  grower  and  a fruit  of  good  quality  yet  it  is  not  regu- 
lar enough  bearer  to  warrant  general  planting. 


Bulletin  No.  92. — Cherries  in  Washington. 


31 


Royal  Ann — (Napoleon)  Of  European  origin.  The  old 
well  known  Napoleon  of  the  east.  A large  light  red  and  yellow, 
oblong  heartshaped  fruit  with  rather  long  stem,  small  oblong 
stone,  thin,  tough  skin  and  yellow,  firm,  juicy  flesh.  A cherry 
of  extra  fine  quality  and  rich  sweet  flavor,  ripening  from  the 
15th  to  the  20th  of  June  in  the  valleys  and  about  the  10th  of 
July  on  the  uplands. 

The  tree  is  a large,  upright  grower  with  long  branches, 
strong  crotches  and  a large  number  of  fruiting  twigs.  The 
foliage  is  abundant,  dark  green,  but  seriously  troubled  with 
the  black  aphis  of  the  cherry.  Our  best  and  most  successful 
light  colored  sweet  cherry  for  the  valleys  but  too  tender  in 
wood  and  bud  for  the  uplands.  It  is  a regular  annual  bearer. 

Vilne  Sweet — Im  ported  from  Yilne  in  the  southwest  Rus- 
sia by  Prof.  Budd.  A large,  dark  red,  oblong  fruit  with  long 
slender  stem,  large  oblong  stone,  thin,  tender  skin  and  yellow, 
rather  firm,  meaty  flesh.  A comparatively  little  known  cherry 
of  good  quality  and  a rich  sweet  flavor,  ripening  from  the  10th 
to  the  16th  of  July  and  hanging  to  the  tree  in  good  shape  until 
the  last  of  August. 

The  tree  is  a medium  sized,  irregular,  upright  grower 
with  long  strong  branches  and  nuiperous  slender  twigs.  Its 
foliage  is  dark  green,  abundant,  and  practically  free  from  in- 
sect pests  and  plant  diseases.  During  the  past  five  years  this 
variety  has  produced  one  light  crop,  two  fair  crops  and  two 
very  heavy  crops.  It  probably  is  the  hardiest  sweet 
cherry  grown  here  at  the  station  and  while  not  as  firm  as  si- 
milar varieties,  yet  it  gives  promise  of  being  an  excellent  sweet 
cherry  for  the  uplands  of  eastern  Washington. 

Wagner — A medium  to  large,  dark  red,  roundish  oblate 
fruit  with  rather  short,  heavy  stem,  almost  round  stone,  thin 
tender  skin  and  a yellow,  meaty,  melting  flesh.  A cherry  of 
good  quality  and  rich  subacid  to  almost  sweet  flavor,  ripening 
from  the  10th  to  the  16th  of  July. 

The  tree  is  an  upright,  round  topped  tree  with  long  up- 
right branches  and  short  thick  twigs.  Its  foliage  is  dark, 
plentiful  and  practically  free  from  plant  diseases  and  insect 
pests.  During  the  past  five  years  this  variety  has  had  one 
failure,  two  fair  crops  and  two  heavy  crops. 


32 


State  College  Experiment  Station 


Yam — Originated  in  California.  Rather  large,  purplish  red, 
roundish,  heartshaped,  attractive  fruit  with  a heavy  long  stem, 
large  round  stone,  thick  tough  skin  and  deeply  stained,  firm, 
juicy  flesh.  The  fruit  is  of  excellent  quality  and  has  a rich 
sweet  pleasant  flavor,  ripening  from  the  1st  to  the  15th  of 
July. 

The  tree  is  a medium  sized,  upright,  pyramidal  shaped  tree 
with  long  strong  branches,  very  narrow  crotches  and  an  abun- 
dance of  dark  green  leaves  which  are  usually  seriously  attacked 
by  the  black  cherry  aphis.  During  the  past  five  years  this  va- 
riety has  produced  one  medium!  sized  crop  and  four  almost 
failures.  While  the  fruit  is  rather  nice  the  buds  are  too  tender 
to  withstand  our  winters. 

Yellow  Glass — Introduced  from  Russia  by  Prof.  Budd.  A 
medium  to  large,  light  lemon  colored,  roundish,  heartshaped 
fruit  with  a long  stem,  round  large  stone,  thin  but  tough  skin 
and  a firm,  yellow,  meaty  flesh.  The  fruit  is  of  fair  quality; 
has  a mild  subacid  to  sweet  flavor  and  ripens  from  the  20th 
to  the  27th  of  July. 

The  tree  is  a large,  upright,  strong  grower  with  abundance 
of  large,  light  green  leaves.  During  the  past  five  years  this 
variety  has  produced  one  light  crop  and  four  very  heavy  crops. 
This  is  one  of  our  most  attractive  cherries,  but  not  considered 
of  commercial  importance  on  account  of  its  color.  It  is  very 
pleasant  to  eat  out  of  the  hand  and  while  not  as  sweet  as  some 
cherries  yet  it  is  a very  nice  variety  for  the  home  orchard. 


STATE  COLLEGE  OF  WASHINGTON 
AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 
PULLMAN,  WASHINGTON 


INVESTIGATIONS  CONDUCTED  AT 

WESTERN  WASHINGTON  EXPERIMENT 
STATION 

PUYALLUP,  WASHINGTON 


I.  A Preliminary  Report  on  Some  Experiments  in 
Clearing  Logged-off  Land  with  a Stump  Burner 

II.  A Promising  Method  for  Destroying  Stumps  and  Logs 

By  W-  H.  LAWRENCE 


Bulletin  No.  93 

1910 


All  Bulletins  of  this  Station  sent  free  to  Citizens  of  the  State  on 
application  to  the  Director. 


BOARD  OF  CONTROL. 


Lee  A.  Johnson,  President Sunnyside 

E.  A.  Bryan,  Secretary  ex-officio,  President  of  the  College Pullman 

J.  J.  Browne Spokane 

Peter  McGregor Colfax 

R.  C.  McCroskey Garfield 

D.  S.  Troy Chimacum 


STATION  STAFF. 

(Pullman,  Wash.) 

R.  W.  Thatcher,  M.  A.,  Director  and  Chemist. 

Elton  Fulmer,  M.  A.,  State  Chemist. 

S.  B.  Nelson,  D.  V.  M.,  Veterinarian. 

0.  L.  Waller,  Ph.  M.,  Irrigation  Engineer. 

R.  K.  Beattie,  A.  M.,  Botanist. 

Walter  S.  Thornber,  M.  S.,  Horticulturist. 

A.  L.  Melander,  M.  S.,  Entomologist. 

W.  H.  Lawrence,  M.  S.,  Plant  Pathologist. 

W.  T.  McDonald,  M.  S.  A.,  Animal  Husbandman. 

C.  C.  Thom,  M.  S.,  Soil  Physicist. 

H.  B.  Humphrey,  Ph.  D.,  Plant  Pathologist. 

Leonard  Hegnauer,  B.  S.  A.,  Agronomist. 

Alex  Carlyle,  Cerealist. 

W.  T.  Shaw,  B.  S.,  Assistant  Zoologist. 

George  A.  Olson,  M.  S.,  Assistant  Chemist. 

E.  L.  Peterson,  B.  S.,  Assistant  Soil  Physicist. 

Rex  N.  Hunt,  M.  S.,  Assistant  Botanist. 

W.  H.  Hein,  M.  A.,  Assistant  Horticulturist. 

W.  L.  Hadlock,  B.  S.,  Assistant  Chemist. 

J.  W.  Kalkus,  D.  V.  M.,  Assistant  Veterinarian. 

M.  A.  Yothers,  B.  S.,  Assistant  Entomologist. 

STATION  STAFF. 

(Puyallup,  Wash.) 

W.  H.  Lawrence,  M.  S.,  Superintendent. 

H.  L.  Blanchard,  Assistant  Superintendent , in  charge  of  Dairy  and 
Poultry  Investigations. 

Christian  Westergaard,  Assistant  in  Agricultural  Investigations. 

, Assistant  in  Horticultural  Investigations. 

h.  Janet  Silsby,  Stenographer  and  Laboratory  Assistant. 

Grove  L.  Stillman,  Farm  Foreman. 


PART  I 


A PRELIMINARY  REPORT  ON  SOME  EXPERI- 
MENTS IN  CLEARING  LOGGED-OEE  LAND 
WITH  A STUMP  BURNER. 


By  W.  H.  LAWRENCE. 


INTRODUCTION. 

A more  rapid  development  of  the  agricultural  lands  in  and 
near  the  timber  area  in  Washington  is  desirable,  since,  in  many 
cases,  the  demand  for  farm  produce  exceeds  the  supply.  This 
condition  can  be  overcome  in  case  a more  rapid  and  less  expen- 
sive method  in  clearing  logged-off  land  can  be  practiced.  Gen- 
erally the  present  methods  as  practiced  have  proven  to  be  too 
slow  and  ineffective,  or  too  expensive  to  be  practiced  by  one  of 
limited  means.  Cheaper  and  more  serviceable  methods  are  de- 
sired. Usually  the  more  rapidly  the  method  and  the  greater 
the  results,  the  higher  the  cost  per  acre.  Owing  to  so  great 
a demand  for  money  in  other  industries  which  are  paying  good 
dividends  on  short  investments,  only  a limited  amount  of  capital 
has  been  available  for  use  in  clearing  land  or  in  making  more 
rapid  and  effective  the  present  methods.  More  recently,  how- 
ever, the  clearing  of  logged-off  land  is  receiving  much  more 
attention.  Much  time  is  being  devoted  to  a more  careful  study 
of  the  older  methods,  with  the  hope  of  improving  them.  Also, 
time  is  being  devoted  to  devising  and  trying  newer  methods. 


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SERVICEABILITY  OF  METHODS  OF  LAND  CLEARING. 

The  oldest  method  is  the  hand  method.  By  the  use  of  peavies, 
mattocks,  shovels  and  axes,  the  dirt  is  removed  from  the  roots, 
which  are  then  cut  off  and  piled  around  the  stump  with  the  re- 
mainder of  the  debris  and  burned.  An  immense  amount  of 
slow  and  extremely  taxing  labor  is  required,  but  the  land  when 
cleared  is  in  a better  condition  than  when  cleared  by  other 
methods.  More  recently  capstans  and  stump-pullers  have  been 
used  to  a good  advantage,  in  connection  with  the  hand  method. 
The  work  is  made  less  laborious  and  more  rapid,  but  the  cost 
is  usually  somewhat  greater.  The  work  of  removing  stumps 
has  also  been  facilitated  and  made  more  effective,  under  a wide 
range  of  conditions,  by  the  use  of  stumping  powder.  In  re- 
moving stumps  by  this  method,  large  holes  are  made  in  the 
ground  which  must  be  filled  before  plowing  can  be  done.  The 
subsoil  is  scattered  over  the  surface  soil  and  the  pieces  of  the 
stump  must  be  gathered  together  and  burned.  The  cost  of 
the  powder,  the  work  of  filling  the  hole,  collecting,  piling  and 
burning  the  debris  makes  the  method  an  expensive  one.  Boring 
intersecting  holes  into  the  base  of  the  stumps  and  burning  them 
(also  practiced  in  burning  down  large  trees)  has  also  been  a 
serviceable  method.  While  the  destruction  of  logs  by  boring 
and  burning  has  proven  more  successful,  yet  it  requires  as 
much  time  and  hard  labor,  as  does  the  practice  of  boring  holes 
in  stumps  and  burning  them.  In  the  case  of  the  latter,  how- 
ever, very  frequently  the  crown  fails  to  burn,  thus  leaving  the 
large  roots  intact.  To  complete  the  destruction  by  burning  is 
oftentimes  tedious  and  quite  difficult  work.  In  using  stumping 
powder,  which  is  the  last  resort  in  such  a case,  the  explosion  of 
powder  usually  breaks  the  weaker  portions  of  the  crown  and 
fails  to  remove  the  roots.  It  is  then  necessary  to  place  several 
smaller  blasts  in  order  to  accomplish  the  desired  results.  In 
many  cases  it  is  necessary  to  separate  the  roots  by  hand  in 
order  to  handle  them  to  a good  advantage.  The  charcoaling 
or  pitting  method  is  proving  to  be  a very  satisfactory  and  effec- 
tive but  slow  method  of  destroying  stumps.  This  method,  like 


Clearing  Land  with  Stump  Burner 


5 


a majority  of  the  others,  does  not  provide  for  complete  land 
clearing.  All  of  the  down  trees  and  small  timber  not  burned 
with  the  slashing  must  be  destroyed.  The  use  of  stumping 
powder  for  splitting  and  loosening  stumps  preparatory  to  pull- 
ing and  piling  them  with  a donkey  engine  has  proven  to  be 
the  most  rapid  method.  This  method,  as  practiced  by  many, 
has  proven  to  be  a very  expensive  one.  After  the  stumps  have 
been  pulled  and  piled  with  the  logs  and  other  debris  collected 
and  piled  by  the  aid  of  the  donkey  engine,  it  is  necessary  to 
remove  many  roots  which  were  broken  off  when  the  stumps 
were  pulled,  after  which  the  large  hole  in  the  ground  must  be 
filled  before  the  land  is  ready  for  the  plow.  While  the  method 
is  a good  one,  it  is  expensive  and  requires  considerable  ready 
money.  The  use  of  the  various  types  of  stump-burning  ma- 
chines has  been  made  with  largely  varying  success,  depending 
upon  the  condition  of  soil  (variety  of  soil  and  water  content) 
and  the  kind  and  condition  of  the  timber.  The  above  mentioned 
methods  variously  modified  have  been  the  most  effective  ones 
followed  in  land  clearing. 

OBJECT  OF  THE  EXPERIMENT. 

While  some  methods  have  been  more  serviceable  than  others, 
none  have  yet  met  the  requirements  of  the  land  owner  of  very 
limited  means  who  possesses  a few  acres  of  logged-off  land  which 
was  originally  purchased  for  a home. 

An  inexpensive  but  serviceable  machine  by  which  logs  and 
stumps  can  be  destroyed  very  rapidly  and  at  a low  cost,  and 
with  very  little  injury  to  the  soil,  easy  to  operate,  requiring  the 
attention  of  one  or  two  persons,  will  to  a large  degree  meet  the 
requirements  of  the  homemaker.  With  these  requirements  in 
mind,  the  stump-burner  described  below  was  given  a limited  trial 
with  sufficient  promising  results  to  warrant  publishing  the  in- 
formation gained  in  using  the  same. 

THE  STUMP-BURNER  USED  IN  THE  EXPERIMENTS. 

The  stump-burner  consists  of  a 1%  horse-power  gasoline 
engine  with  13-inch  flywheel  and  adjusted  to  run  650  revolu- 


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Western  Washington  Experiment  Station 


tions  per  minute;  a circular  fan  (No.  IV  American  blower  with 
8%-inch  fan  and  S^-inch  pulley)  provided  with  a patent  wind 
distributor  tapped  to  attach  five  lines  of  l^-inch  hose;  hose 
couplings;  pieces  of  l^-inch  rubber  hose  of  different  lengths; 
a number  of  pieces  of  galvanized  iron  tubing;  a few  small  iron 
plates,  and  several  lengths  of  boiler  tubing  slightly  curved  at 
one  end,  which  are  used  as  blow-pipes.  The  hose  couplings  are 
used  to  attach  the  rubber  hose  to  the  wind  distributor  and  the 
blow-pipes.  The  tubing,  which  is  of  the  right  diameter  to  fit 
inside  of  the  hose  tightly,  is  connected  with  short  pieces  of 
rubber  hose  18  to  24  inches  in  length.  By  using  tubing  and 
short  pieces  of  hose  of  variable  lengths  the  right  size  to  tele- 
scope, provision  is  made  for  varying  the  length  of  line  of  hose 
as  desired.  The  lines  of  hose  are  very  light  and  easily  ad- 
justed, since  no  couplings  are  required.  The  tubing  connected 
by  short  pieces  of  hose  also  prevents  doubling,  thus  retarding 
or  stopping  the  current  of  air.  From  the  description,  it  is 
plainly  seen  that  the  stump-burner  is  small,  light  in  weight  and 
very  cheaply  constructed.  At  a later  date  the  blower  was 
coupled  with  a two-horse-power  gasoline  engine  and  mounted 
on  a truck.  With  the  latter  engine  a few  trials  in  operating 
a wood-boring  auger  by  power  were  made  as  described  on  an- 
other page  of  this  bulletin. 

THE  PLAN  OF  WORK. 

The  machine  was  set  in  a convenient  position  to  burn  several 
stumps  at  a time.  Auger  holes,  two  inches  in  diameter,  were 
made  in  the  base  of  the  stumps.  The  boring  was  done  by 
hand.  The  auger  was  directed  inward  and  downward  in  order 
to  extend  the  hole  as  low  and  as  far  as  the  center  or  even  three- 
fourths  to  seven-eighths  of  the  diameter  when  the  stumps  were 
of  large  size.  Short  pieces  of  hose  with  couplings  on  one  end 
were  attached  to  the  wind  distributor,  and  sections  of  galvan- 
ized iron  tubing  inserted,  after  which  alternate  sections  of  hose 
and  tubing  were  added  in  order  to  make  the  lines  of  hose  of 
sufficient  length,  after  adding  the  last  section  of  hose  with  the 
blow-pipe  attached,  to  reach  the  stumps.  A fire  was  then 


Clearing  Land  with  Stump  Burner 


7 


started  in  each  auger  hole  by  using  live  coals  of  wood  or 
kindling.  The  machine  was  set  in  motion  in  order  to  fan  the 
fires.  In  burning,  it  was  the  plan  to  drive  the  fire  to  the  center 
of  the  stump  and  to  confine  it  as  long  a time  as  possible,  pre- 
venting, if  possible,  the  forming  of  a large  opening  at  the  point 
of  entrance.  This  was  accomplished  by  inserting  the  blow-pipe 
into  the  opening  as  fast  as  the  burning  would  allow.  Occa- 
sionally, burning  around  the  blow-pipe  takes  place  more  rapidly 
than  desired.  In  such  a case  it  was  found  advantageous  to  use 
an  iron  plate  of  sufficient  diameter  to  cover  the  hole.  The  plate 
has  an  opening  in  the  center  large  enough  for  the  insertion  of 
the  blow-pipe.  By  keeping  the  fire  confined  it  is  less  difficult  to 
drive  it  into  the  main  roots  than  when  allowed  to  burn  in  the 
open.  The  blow-pipes  must  be  moved  frequently  in  order  to 
keep  the  fire  burning  briskly  and  to  the  best  advantage.  When 
the  fire  is  confined  and  the  air  is  constantly  forced  into  the  small 
space,  the  heat  becomes  so  intense  that  the  air  burns  as  it  leaves 
the  blow-pipe,  forming  a long  flame.  The  heat  generated  under 
such  conditions  is  intense.  Small  rocks  were  readily  melted 
when  placed  in  the  stumps  which  were  burning  briskly.  The  in- 
tense heat  produces  charcoal  very  rapidly.  The  layer  of  char- 
coal apparently  retards  the  rate  of  burning.  It  was  found 
advantageous  under  some  conditions  to  frequently  remove  the 
layers  of  charcoal,  using  a long-handled  iron  chisel.  After 
the  center  of  the  stump  has  been  partially  burned  out  and  the 
opening  is  large  enough  to  permit  the  introduction  of  kindling, 
it  is  an  excellent  plan  to  insert  as  much  small  wood  as  possible. 
The  bed  of  coals  formed  by  the  kindling  aids  to  maintain  an 
intense  heat.  Excellent  use  of  the  debris  can  be  made  in  burn- 
ing the  roots  after  the  crown  of  the  stump  has  been  largely 
destroyed.  From  a very  limited  trial,  it  is  evident  that  char- 
coaling and  pitting  the  roots  may  be  practiced  to  a good  ad- 
vantage at  this  stage  in  the  use  of  the  stump-burner.  Burning 
large  logs  is  also  quite  readily  accomplished.  The  best  results 
were  obtained  by  boring  a hole  as  near  the  underside  of  the  log 
as  possible  and  about  three-fourths  through  it,  after  which  the 
fire  was  controlled  as  described  above.  Small  debris  (sections 


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Western  W ashington  Experiment  Station 


of  dead  limbs,  etc.)  may  be  inserted  into  the  log  to  a good  ad- 
vantage after  the  fire  has  made  a cavity  of  some  size.  Again, 
as  in  burning  stumps,  it  is  advisable  to  remove  the  charcoal  by 
using  the  long-handled  chisel. 

After  the  logs  have  been  burned  into  sections  and  reduced  in 
weight  so  that  they  can  be  handled  to  a good  advantage,  the 
tops  of  the  stumps  (which  are  seldom  entirely  burned)  may  be 
piled  with  the  other  debris,  consisting  of  all  small  stuff,  together 
with  the  small  trees  which  have  been  cut  into  sections  for  con- 
venience in  handling,  and  burned.  It  is  advisable  to  use  the 
outfit  only  in  case  marked  results  cannot  be  obtained  in  burning 
the  pile. 

KIND  AND  CONDITION  OF  LOGS  AND  STUMPS 
BURNED. 

Trials  were  made  in  burning  both  cedar  and  fir  under  various 
conditions.  The  first  trials  were  made  in  a marsh,  in  burning 
cedar  stumps  and  logs  which  were  so  saturated  with  water  that 
it  was  impossible  to  burn  them  without  the  aid  of  a machine. 
The  intense  heat,  generated  by  the  burning  air  and  wood  (espe- 
cially when  the  fire  was  confined),  produced  a heat  which  dried 
the  wood  faster  than  burning  took  place.  This  trial  lasted  for 
a period  of  eight  days.  The  results  obtained  under  such  con- 
ditions were  encouraging.  Better  success,  however,  was  met 
with  in  burning  fir. 

Stumps  of  various  ages  and  conditions  were  burned.  It  is 
found  that  the  greater  the  stump,  the  more  quickly  it  could  be 
destroyed.  The  condition  of  the  older  stumps  was  found  to  vary 
from  solid  to  badly  decomposed,  by  the  action  of  the  elements, 
assisted  by  saprophatic  fungi  and  wood-boring  ants.  Stumps 
consisting  of  fir  wood  which  have  not  absorbed  very  much  water 
are  easily  burned.  Naturally  the  more  pitch  they  contained  the 
more  rapidly  combustion  took  place.  Those  stumps,  however, 
in  various  stages  of  decay  and  full  of  fungi,  and  in  many  cases 
well  saturated  with  water,  were  usually  more  difficult  of  de- 
struction. Concerning  the  various  conditions  of  fir  stumps,  it 
can  be  said  that  the  general  appe4rance  is  no  indication  of  the 


Clearing  Land  with  Stump  Burner 


9 


ease  with  which  they  may  be  burned.  In  several  instances, 
stumps  apparently  sound,  as  indicated  by  external  appearance, 
were  so  thoroughly  saturated  with  water  throughout  the  greater 
portion  of  the  heart  wood  that,  after  the  holes  were  bored,  the 
water  continued  to  drip  or  even  in  some  cases  to  run  from  the 
wood  for  a period  of  several  minutes  and  even  hours.  The  in- 
tense heat  which  can  be  generated  by  the  aid  of  such  a machine 
is  sufficient  to  destroy  the  most  water-soaked  and  decayed  forms, 
although  the  progress  is  much  less  rapid  under  such  conditions. 

THE  EFFECT  OF  BURNING  THE  SOIL. 

One  of  the  most  important  considerations  connected  with 
clearing  the  land  is  the  burning  of  the  soil.  An  examination  of 
an  area  of  land  before  the  slashing  is  burned  reveals  consider- 
able leaf  mould  and  humus  on  the  surface  and  in  the  surface 
soil.  Following  the  fire,  no  humus  is  found  on  the  surface  and 
little  or  none  in  the  soil,  since  a very  large  proportion,  if  not 
the  entire  amount,  has  been  destroyed  during  the  burning.  The 
burning  of  the  slashing  is  necessary,  and  the  injury  done  the 
soil  cannot  be  controlled.  In  using  the  stump-burner  it  has 
been  observed  in  this  experiment  that  the  soil  is  burned  but  very 
little.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  blow-pipes  can  be  placed 
so  that  the  fire  is  directed  to  the  best  advantage.  It  has  also 
been  observed  that  in  case  the  soil  is  dry,  the  volume  injured  is 
greater  than  where  moisture  is  abundant.  The  water  evidently 
prevents  the  heat  from  penetrating  more  than  a few  inches.  It 
may  also  be  said  concerning  this  method  of  burning  that  the 
damaged  soil  is  not  left  on  the  surface,  but,  since  it  forms  a part 
of  the  subsoil,  is  buried  when  the  hole  formed  by  the  destruction 
of  the  stump  has  been  filled.  It  is  also  true  that  the  virgin  soil 
which  has  been  exposed  to  the  elements  for  so  long  a time  is 
not  burned  or  mixed  with  the  subsoil,  as  such  is  the  case  in  level- 
ing after  clearing  when  stumping  powder  has  been  used  in  con- 
nection with  various  devices,  such  as  teams  and  tackle,  donkey 
engine  and  stump-puller.  It  is  also  to  be  noted  that  the  volume 
of  soil  damaged  by  burning  in  this  method  of  clearing  is  but  a 
small  area  as  compared  with  the  diameter  of  the  stump  de- 


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Western  Washington  Experiment  Station 


stroyed.  It  is  the  opinion  of  the  writer  that  of  the  various 
methods  of  land  clearing  which  injure  the  soil,  this  one  does  the 
least  of  any  of  the  methods  practiced. 

Inquiry  has  been  made  concerning  the  fertilized  value  of  ashes 
of  wood  which  has  been  burned  in  this  manner.  The  volume  of 
ash  is  small.  There  is  very  little  potash  present,  since  the  high 
temperature  to  which  most  of  the  ash  has  been  exposed  volatil- 
izes the  compound  containing  this  essential  plant  food. 

THE  DETAIL  OF  EXPERIMENTS. 

The  first  test  with  the  outfit  was  made  in  a marsh  in  burning 
cedar.  Trials  were  made  to  destroy  logs  and  stumps  in  all  sorts 
of  conditions — some  solid,  consisting  of  perfectly  sound  wood, 
while  others  were  in  various  stages  of  decay,  many  times  con- 
sisting of  mere  shells  filled  with  rotten,  water-soaked  wood.  A 
very  large  proportion  of  this  material  was  thoroughly  water- 
soaked.  While  very  slow  progress  could  be  made  in  burning  the 
partially  dry  logs,  etc.,  by  the  usual  method,  nothing  was  ac- 
complished in  burning  the  stumps  or  piles  of  water-soaked  logs, 
unless  the  machine  was  used.  By  the  aid  of  the  blower,  however, 
burning  was  accomplished  at  a reasonable  cost.  The  conclusion 
drawn  was  based  upon  the  expense  of  operating  the  machine,  as 
compared  with  the  amount  of  work  accomplished. 

The  second  test  was  made  in  burning  fir  stumps  which  had 
been  split  by  the  use  of  stumping  powder.  It  was  easily  demon- 
strated that  splitting  the  stumps  previous  to  burning  with  such 
a machine  makes  the  work  tedious  and  much  more  expensive. 
The  fire  is  much  more  difficult  to  control,  since  it  is  impossible 
to  produce  a great  enough  heat  to  do  as  rapid  burning  as 
under  conditions  where  burning  is  easily  controlled. 

During  the  third  test  a fir  log  cut  in  1907,  eighty-five  feet 
long,  with  an  average  diameter  of  thirty-six  inches,  partially 
sound  and  partially  infested  with  fungus,  and  which  had  split 
about  one-third  its  length  when  cut  down,  was  burned  in  ten 
hours’  time — five  lines  of  hose,  nine  hours,  and  one  line,  five 
hours.  The  log  was  burned  in  sections  which  were  rolled  to- 


Clearmg  Land  with  Stump  Burner 


11 


gether  by  the  aid  of  a peavy,  and  the  burning  finished  by  the 
use  of  one  line  of  hose. 

Two  green  fir  stumps,  one  five  feet  in  diameter  five  feet  above 
the  ground,  twenty-two  feet  around  the  base  at  the  ground,  with 
twelve  large  roots,  and  the  other  four  and  a half  feet  in  diameter 
six  feet  from  the  base  and  measuring  a little  under  nineteen  feet 
around  the  base,  with  eight  roots,  were  burned  off  in  a twelve 
hours’  run.  The  twenty  roots,  with  the  exception  of  three  very 
large  ones,  were  burned  below  the  level  so  that  the  plow  would  go 
over  them.  A run  of  four  hours  with  four  lines  of  hose  was 
required  to  finish  the  work.  The  cost  to  do  the  work,  basing  the 
cost  of  labor  at  30  cents  per  hour,  and  a charge  of  70  cents  for 
gasoline  and  oil,  the  average  price  for  removing  the  stump 
would  be  $2.60  each. 

Twenty-two  hours’  work  on  a green  fir  stump  about  five  feet 
in  diameter,  with  large  spreading  roots,  gave  less  encouraging 
results.  The  small  fir  burned  out  completely,  even  the  smaller 
roots  penetrating  to  a depth  of  three  feet.  The  crown  of  the 
•cedar  burned,  separating  the  roots  but  not  low  enough  for  plow 
to  pass  over  them.  The  roots  of  the  large  fir  were  water- 
soaked,  hence  burning  was  almost  impossible.  In  both  cases, 
the  crowns  were  burned  out,  separating  the  roots.  Basing  cost 
on  above  mentioned  price,  the  average  cost  was  $2.73. 

The  sixth  test  was  made  on  cedar  stumps,  one  two  and  a half 
feet,  and  one  four  feet  in  diameter,  and  a green  fir  five  feet 
in  diameter  six  feet  from  the  base.  It  took  twenty-eight  hours 
to  complete  the  work.  The  roots  were  not  burned  out.  During 
this  test  a delay  of  several  hours  was  caused  by  a disabled  en- 
gine, thus  making  it  impossible  to  control  the  fire  to  the  best 
advantage.  The  cost  per  stump  was  $2.93  in  this  trial. 

A group  of  five  old  fir  stumps,  one  two  feet,  two  each  three 
feet,  and  two  each  two  feet  and  six  inches  in  diameter,  each 
nine  feet  high,  more  or  less  decayed  and  thoroughly  soaked  with 
water,  were  burned,  low  enough  to  destroy  the  crowns,  thus 
separating  the  roots,  in  a twenty-two  hour  run.  These  stumps 
were  in  such  a water-soaked  and  decayed  condition  that  the  fire 
'would  not  burn  after  the  blowers  were  removed.  The  roots  could 


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Western  Washington  Experiment  Station 


not  be  burned,  owing  to  the  abundance  of  water  in  the  soil.  The 
average  cost  for  doing  this  work  was  $1.56  each. 

Another  group  of  five  fir  stumps,  nine  feet  tall,  with  an  aver- 
age diameter  of  three  feet  six  inches,  mostly  sound  but  water- 
soaked,  were  burned,  as  low  as  the  soil  conditions  would  permit,, 
in  twenty-seven  hours.  Again  the  crowns  were  destroyed,  leav- 
ing the  roots  separate.  The  average  cost  of  this  work  was 
$1.70  per  stump. 

Five  large  fir  stumps,  each  ten  feet  in  height,  averaging  five 
feet  two  and  one-half  inches  three  feet  from  the  bases,  were 
burned  off  so  that  all  the  crowns  were  destroyed,  leaving  the 
roots  separate,  many  of  which  were  also  largely  burned  up. 
Forty  hours’  time  was  required  to  do  the  work.  The  cost  of 
burning  done  on  each  of  these  stumps  was  $2.80. 

CONCLUSIONS. 

1.  The  economical  destruction  of  large  stumps  is  the  most 
perplexing  problem  in  land  clearing.  By  the  use  of  the  the 
stump-burner  the  crowns  of  stumps  are  readily  destroyed,  thus 
leaving  the  roots  separated.  The  roots  may  be  burned  below 
the  surface  so  they  will  not  interfere  in  cultivation,  or  they  may 
be  removed  by  the  use  of  small  quantities  of  stumping  powder 
or  some  other  convenient  method — the  method  to  be  determined 
by  the  cost.  The  stumps  of  the  smaller  growth  may  be  re- 
moved at  this  time  and  by  the  same  method.  The  large  logs 
may  be  burned  in  sections,  the  smaller  ones  cut  into  convenient 
length  for  handling,  and  the  entire  mass  of  debris,  including  the 
small  rubbish,  collected  in  piles  and  burned.  By  this  method, 
the  important  problem  of  putting  the  entire  mass  into  a condi- 
tion so  that  it  may  be  handled  and  burned  quite  readily  is  ac- 
complished, leaving  the  land  ready  for  the  plow. 

2.  To  operate  the  outfit  described  for  a period  of  ten  hours 
requires  the  services  of  one  man,  two  gallons  of  gasoline,  and 
a small  quantity  of  cylinder  oil.  The  cost  for  labor,  at  $2.00 
per  day,  and  two  gallons  of  gasoline  and  a small  quantity  of 
cylinder  oil  would  not  make  the  cost  of  operating  exceed  $2.50 
per  day.  In  operating  a five-line  burner,  the  operator  has  time- 


Clearing  Land  with  Stump  Burner 


13 


to  get  together  the  small  refuse,  and  to  saw  into  convenient 
lengths  for  handling  the  timber  which  is  too  small  to  burn,  to 
a good  advantage  with  the  aid  of  the  machine. 

It  is  believed  from  the  experience  gained  in  the  use  of  this 
stump-burner  that  one  large  enough  and  equipped  to  operate 
ten  lines  of  hose  at  a time  could  be  operated  to  a better  ad- 
vantage. The  increase  in  cost  of  operation  of  a large  machine 
would  only  exceed  the  original  cost  of  operation  of  the  five-line 
type  by  a small  per  cent.  The  large  machine  would  require 
more  gasoline  and  cylinder  oil. 

3.  The  average  cost  of  burning  stumps  was  $2.30.  These 
stumps  averaged  47  inches  in  diameter.  To  remove  such  a 
stump  by  blasting  would  require  about  33  sticks  (25  pounds) 
of  powder  at  13  cents  per  pound.  The  powder  would  cost  $3.25. 
Considering  the  additional  cost  of  doing  the  blasting,  filling  the 
hole  caused  by  the  explosion  and  the  work  required  to  destroy 
the  stump  after  it  has  been  removed  by  the  use  of  powder,  the 
practice  of  burning  can  readily  be  seen  to  be  by  far  the  cheaper 
one.  It  is  also  to  be  noted  that  the  purchase  of  the  powder 
requires  $3.25  ready  money.  In  using  a stump-burner,  the  cost 
is  represented  very  largely  by  labor  at  $2.00  per  day. 

4.  Clearing  land  with  a stump-burner  requires  good  man- 
agement in  order  to  obtain  good  results.  It  is  essential  to 
place  the  blow-pipes  in  the  right  position  in  order  to  direct  the 
burning  to  the  best  advantage  and  the  right  distance  from  the 
fire  to  insure  rapid  burning.  The  operator  must  be  a good 
observer,  industrious,  and  a steady  worker  to  get  the  desired 
results. 


Plate  I.  Fig.  A — A general  view  of  a tract  of  land  once  heavily  timbered  but 
from  which  the  logs  were  removed  during  the  early  days  of  logging.  The  second- 
ary growth  on  the  tract  has  since  been  cut  down  and  has  just  been  burned  over. 

Fig.  B — A view  of  the  same  tract,  showing  the  stumps  of  second-growth  tim- 
ber and  the  material  which  did  not  burn  during  the  period  of  burning. 

Fig.  C — A view  of  several  large  stumps  in  various  stages  of  decay,  as  shown 
by  the  irregular  and  much  splintered  tops.  These  stumps  were  thoroughly  water- 
soaked,  but  were  burned  as  low  as  soil  conditions  would  permit,  at  an  average 
cost  of  $1.70  per  stump. 

Fig.  D — A general  view  of  a small  area  once  heavily  timbered  with  cedar. 


Plate  II.  Fig.  A — A view  of  the  stump  burner  outfit  mounted  on  a truck, 
showing  the  machine  with  the  lines  of  hose  attached. 

Fig.  B — A closer  view  of  the  machine,  as  shown  in  Fig.  A. 

Fig.  C — The  same  burning  outfit  as  seen  when  mounted  on  a skid. 

Fig.  D — Figure  of  the  stump  burner,  as  shown  in  Fig.  C.,  which  gives  a better 
view  of  the  machine,  particularly  of  the  wind  distributor,  and  the  attachment 
of  the  five  lines  of  hose  used  to  convey  the  air  to  the  place  of  burning. 


Plate  III.  Pig.  L — A green  fir  stump  5 feet  in  diameter  at  the  top,  measuring 
22  feet  around  the  base  at  the  ground,  with  twelve  large  roots.  This  stump  was 
burned  out  at  a cost  of  $2.60.  The  roots,  with  the  exception  of  three  very  large 
ones,  were  burned  below  the  level,  so  that  the  plow  would  pass  over  them. 

Fig.  M — This  figure  shows  the  hole  in  the  ground  left  when  a small  fir  tree 
was  burned  by  the  aid  of  the  stump  buirner.  The  entire  tree  was  burned  out, 
even  the  smaller  roots,  to  a depth  of  three  feet. 

Fig.  N — Fig.  N is  a view  of  the  hole  left  in  the  ground  after  the  stump 
shown  in  Fig.  L was  destroyed. 

Fig.  O — This  figure  shows  the  way  in  which  the  base  of  the  stump  is  burned 
out  in  using  the  stump  burner.  A blow-pipe  is  placed  so  that  the  fire  is  driven 
into  the  roots,  thus  burning  the  crown  of  the  stump  and  the  greater  portion  of 
the  roots  near  the  surface  of  the  soil. 

Fig.  S — The  stump  shown  in  this  figure  was  4%  feet  in  diameter  six  feet 
from  the  base,  at  which  place  it  measured  a little  less  than  19  feet  in  circum- 
ference. There  were  eight  large  roots.  The  crown  of  the  stump  was  burned 
out  in  a twelve-hour  run.  The  cost  of  burning  this  stump  was  $2.60. 

Fig.  T — Figure  T shows  the  holes  left  in  the  ground  after  the  large  stump 
shown  in  Figure  S had  been  destroyed,  with  the  exception  of  three  large  roots, 
which  spread  out  over  the  surface  of  the  ground  for  a distance  of  several  feet. 
This  figure  well  illustrates  the  value  of  such  a machine  as  used  in  the  experi- 
ments in  destroying  the  crown  of  a stump.  Destroying  the  stump  in  this  manner 
eliminates  the  problem  of  handling  enormous  weights  of  wood.  The  roots  are  all 
separated,  thus  making  it  easy  to  remove  them  by  the  most  expedient  and  less 
expensive  method  for  doing  such  work.  It  is  sometimes  advantageous  to  bore 
holes  into  the  large  roots  and  burn  them  below  the  plow  line.  In  other  cases, 
it  is  advisable  to  remove  them  in  some  other  manner. 


PART  II 


A PROMISING  METHOD  FOR  DESTROYING 
STUMPS  AND  LOGS. 

By  W.  H.  LAWRENCE. 


As  concluded  in  the  first  part  of  this  bulletin,  a stump-burner 
to  be  had  at  a reasonable  cost,  light  in  weight,  and  easy  to 
handle,  easily  and  cheaply  operated,  with  which  effective  and 
rapid  destruction  of  logs  and  stumps  is  accomplished,  more 
nearly  meets  the  requirements  of  the  small  land  owner  of  limited 
means. 

While  the  plan  followed,  to  confine  the  fire  and  direct  the  cur- 
rent of  air  so  that  the  greater  portion  of  the  interior  of  the  log 
or  stump  has  been  consumed  before  the  fire  breaks  out,  has 
proven  to  be  a successful  and  cheap  method,  a more  rapid  burn- 
ing is  desirable.  It  is  also  true  that  a stump  or  log,  when  prop- 
erly bored  so  that  the  holes  extend  about  three-fourths  through 
the  obstacle  of  destruction  and  they  intersect,  merging  at  a 
wide  angle  and  are  so  slanted  that  a good  draft  is  possible 
when  a fire  is  started  at  the  point  of  intersection,  will  in  many 
cases  be  partially  consumed,  a log  will  usually  burn  into  sec- 
tions and  the  greater  portion  of  the  crown  of  a stump  will  be 
destroyed,  yet  leaving  the  large  roots  still  united. 

A judicious  combining  of  these  two  methods  appeared  plaus- 
ible. It  was  very  evident  from  experience  and  observation  with 
both  methods  that  the  slow  and  tedious  work  of  boring  the  holes 
by  hand  is  responsible  for  a large  portion  of  the  time  con- 
sumed. It  was  also  evident  that  in  some  cases  at  least  much 
more  effective  and  rapid  work  could  be  done  by  increasing  the 
number  of  holes,  in  order  to  place  the  fires  in  different  portions 
of  the  same  piece  of  wood  at  the  same  time. 

In  order  to  accomplish  the  boring  of  a large  number  of  holes, 
and  at  a rapid  rate,  some  form  of  mechanical  power  must  be 


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Western  Washington  Experiment  Station 


employed.  The  engine,  mounted  on  the  truck  with  the  blower 
(also  mentioned  in  the  first  part  of  this  bulletin  and  shown  in 
Plate  I,  Figs.  1 and  2)  was  fitted  with  a sheave  wheel.  A flex- 
ible shaft  about  7 feet  in  length,  provided  with  attachments  to 
be  driven  by  an  endless  rope,  was  fitted  with  a 1%-inch  ship 
auger  with  a special  shank  about  18  inches  in  length.  The  flex- 
ible shaft  was  then  fastened  to  the  stump  or  log  to  be  bored  by 
using  a chain.  It  was  then  set  in  motion  by  the  endless  rope,, 
guided  by  pulleys  attached  by  leads  to  the  nearest  and  most 
convenient  obstacle,  running  on  the  sheave  wheel  of  the  engine. 
Running  at  a rate  which  did  not  make  the  task  of  holding  the 
auger  a difficult  one,  holes  15  to  18  inches  in  depth  were  easily 
bored  in  twenty  to  twenty-eight  seconds.  The  average  was 
twenty-five  seconds.  Using  the  same  auger,  and  running  it  at 
the  same  speed,  holes  were  bored  to  a depth  of  thirty  to  thirty- 
two  inches  in  fifty  seconds  to  one  minute  in  time.  The  average 
was  fifty-five  seconds.  The  more  rapid  rate  at  which  holes  were 
bored  to  a depth  of  from  fifteen  to  eighteen  inches  was  due  to 
the  structure  of  the  auger.  The  speed  of  the  auger  was  suffi- 
cient to  run  shavings  clear  of  the  hole  until  it  was  inserted  past 
the  worm.  Occasionally  pitch  seams  or  small  knots  cause  the 
worm  to  clog.  After  insertion  past  the  worm,  however,  the 
shavings  would  accumulate  in  the  hole  at  the  top  of  the  shank 
and  at  frequent  intervals  were  removed  by  withdrawing  the 
auger,  causing  the  worm  to  force  the  shavings  out. 

In  order  to  remove  the  shavings  while  boring  at  this  rate,  it 
is  apparently  necessary  to  equip  the  auger  with  a much  longer 
worm.  In  the  limited  number  of  trials  made,  it  was  somewhat 
surprising  to  note  that  such  rapid  work  could  be  done  with 
very  little  delay  on  account  of  heating  the  auger.  Care  must  be 
exercised  at  all  times,  however,  so  that  the  auger  will  not  be 
heated  enough  to  injure  the  temper. 

To  combine  the  method  of  burning  by  keeping  the  fire  en- 
closed and  briskly  burning  by  use  of  the  blower,  and  where  the 
fire  is  given  a natural  draft  as  in  the  plan  where  intersecting 
holes  are  bored,  a large  fir  log  about  feet  in  diameter  was 
bored  at  four  intervals  about  6 feet  apart.  The  plan  in  boring 


Clearing  Land  with  Stump  Burner 


19 


was  to  make  one  hole  straight  into  the  lower  side  of  the  log 
about  four  inches  from  the  lower  edge  and  three-fourths  the 
distance  through  it.  Three  to  five  holes  were  then  made  by 
directing  the  auger  downward  from  the  upper  surface,  con- 
necting with  the  cross  hole,  if  possible. 

The  fires  were  started  in  the  lower  holes,  the  blower  set  in 
motion  and  the  results  noted.  The  fire,  constantly  fanned  in 
the  lower  holes,  advanced  into  the  vertical  ones  very  rapidly. 
In  some  cases  all  the  vertical  holes  had  not  been  made  to  connect 
with  the  horizontal  ones.  In  these  cases  the  rate  of  burning  at 
first  was  greatly  retarded  until  the  fire  ate  its  way  through  the 
solid  portions  of  wood,  connecting  the  vents.  The  fire  when 
fanned  by  the  blower  is  driven  into  all  the  openings,  and  very 
shortly  every  portion  is  lined  with  fire,  which  is  also  driven  in 
short  columns  several  inches  in  length  from  the  mouths  of  the 
openings.  In  the  twilight,  the  several  short  and  straight  but 
even  columns  of  fire,  appearing  like  so  many  fiery  spines  grow- 
ing from  the  log,  each  merging  into  a small  column  of  smoke 
of  various  shades  and  colors,  the  several  rings  located  at  various 
intervals  on  the  log,  the  glare  and  low  constant  roar  of  the  fire, 
the  hum  of  the  fan,  the  explosion  of  the  engine  and  the  deepen- 
ing of  the  evening  shades  as  twilight  merges  into  dusk,  makes 
the  scene  of  burning  a weird  and  picturesque  one. 

Although  several  minor  trials  were  made  with  good  results, 
the  main  experiment  was  conducted  on  a large  log.  Each  set 
of  boring  gave  slightly  different  results.  In  one  case  the  lower 
hole  was  bored  entirely  through  the  tree.  It  was  impossible  to 
burn  to  advantage,  since  a draft  could  not  be  produced  in  the 
longer  and  vertical  holes.  In  another  trial,  the  holes  were  not 
bored  as  deeply  as  the  cross  holes.  It  took  some  time  to  get 
the  fire  burning  briskly  and  to  connect  all  these  vents  with  the 
lower  one,  since  several  inches  of  solid  wood  had  to  be  consumed 
before  a draft  was  possible.  One  trial,  however,  where  the  cross 
holes  met  with  the  vertical  vents,  in  every  case,  the  fire  started 
in  the  lower  hole,  advanced  into  all  the  upper  ones  very  rapidly, 
and  continued  to  burn  briskly.  In  less  than  one  hour  the  entire 
center  of  the  log  had  been  burned  out,  leaving  a shell  about  six 


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Western  Washington  Experiment  Station 


to  eight  inches  in  thickness.  By  making  vents  to  direct  the  fire, 
burning  can  be  easily  controlled  and  made  more  effective  by 
placing  pieces  of  bark  or  sods  of  dirt  over  one  or  any  number 
of  the  vents,  thus  stopping  the  drafts,  and  making  a few  new 
vents,  if  necessary. 

The  trials  were  very  limited  in  developing  this  method,  since 
they  were  necessarily  discontinued  by  a disabled  engine  and 
followed  by  heavy  rains  interfering,  and  furthermore  requiring 
the  attention  of  the  entire  station  force  to  care  for  grain  and 
other  crops. 

Owing  to  a slight  unavoidable  change  in  the  plan  of  the  work, 
the  writer  finds  it  impossible  to  continue  the  work  on  this  method 
at  the  present  time.  Believing  that  the  results  obtained  are 
worthy  of  further  consideration,  the  plan  of  work  and  conclu- 
sions drawn,  together  with  the  method  pursued,  is  herewith 
given. 

CONCLUSION. 

This  method  is  a very  promising  one,  since — 

1.  The  machine  used  is  easy  to  handle  and  serviceable. 

2.  Much  time  is  gained  by  boring  the  holes  by  power  and 
makes  it  possible  to  bore  large  numbers  of  holes  in  a very  short 
period  of  time. 

3.  Directing  the  flame  by  making  vents  insures  burning  in 
the  desired  direction.  By  the  use  of  these  vents,  fire  may  not 
only  be  driven  in  the  desired  direction,  but  the  rate  of  burning 
may  be  regulated.  The  rate  of  burning  may  be  easily  regulated 
by  placing  pieces  of  bark  or  sods  over  the  vents  or  by  inserting 
the  section  of  the  limb  of  a tree — using  the  thing  at  hand  and 
procured  with  the  least  exertion. 

4.  Wood  burns  more  rapidly  when  given  a draft  than  where 
the  fire  is  confined.  The  rate  of  burning  may  be  regulated  by 
the  amount  of  air  forced  through  the  vents  by  the  use  of  a 
blower. 

5.  Much  effective  burning  may  be  accomplished  by  boring 
a series  of  holes  for  vents,  after  which  the  fires  may  be  started 
and  allowed  to  burn  by  the  natural  drafts — burning  trees  into 
sections  and  the  tops  of  large  stumps,  etc. 

6.  Combining  the  methods  of  burning  stumps  and  logs  by 
the  use  of  a stump  burner  and  boring  intersecting  holes  and 
burning,  so  that  the  fire  is  guided  to  the  best  advantage  and 
caused  to  burn  briskly  by  a continual  forced  draft  is  both  prac- 
ticable and  advisable. 


The  State  Coliege  of  Washington 

AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 


PULLMAN,  WASHINGTON 


DEPARTMENT  OF  HORTICULTURE 


Potato  Investigations 

By  A.  G.  CRAIG 


BULLETIN  No.  94 
1910 


All  bulletins  of  this  station  sent  free  to  cittzens  of  the  State  on  application  to  director 


BOARD  OF  CONTROL. 


R.  C.  McCROSKEY,  President  - - - - Garfield 

D.  S.  TROY,  Vice-President  - Chimacum 

E.  A.  BRYAN,  Secretary  Ex-Officio  - - - Pullman 

President  of  the  College. 

LEE  A.  JOHNSON  - - Sunnyside 

J.  J.  BROWNE  - - - - Spokane 

PETER  McGREGOR,  ------  Colfax 


STATION 

R.  W.  THATCHER,  M.A. 
ELTON  FULMER,  M.A. 

S.  B.  NELSON,  D.V.M. 

0.  L.  WALLER,  Ph.M. 

R.  K.  BEATTIE,  A.M. 
WALTER'S.  THORNBER,  M.! 
A.  L.  MELANDER,  M.S. 
LEONARD  HEGNAUER,  M.  S., 
W.  H.  LAWRENCE,  M.S. 

w.  t.  McDonald,  m.s.a. 

C.  C.  THOM,  M.S. 

H.  B.  HUMPHREY,  Ph.D 
ALEX  CARLYLE, 

W.  T.  SHAW,  B.S., 

GEORGE  A.  OLSON,  M.S. 

E.  L.  PETERSON,  B.S. 

REX  N.  HUNT,  M.S. 

W.  H.  HEIN,  M.A. 

W.  L.  HADLOCK,  B.S. 

M.  A.  YOTIIERS,  B.  S 


STAFF. 

Director  and  Chemist 
State  Chemist 
Veterinarian 
Irrigation  Engineer 
Botanist 

5.  - Horticulturist 

Etomologist 
Agronomist 
Plant  Pathologist 
Animal  Husbandman 
Soil  Physicist 
Plant  Pathologist 
Cerealist 
Assistant  Zoologist 
Assistant  Chemist 
Assistant  Soil  Physicist 
Assistant  Botanist 
Assistant  Horticulturist 
Assistant  Chemist 
Assistant  Entomologist 


INTRODUCTION. 


The  peculiar  climate  and  soil  conditions  of  Washington 
are  especially  favorable  for  the  production  of  potatoes.  In 
many  large  sections  the  atmosphere  is  so  dry  during  the  grow- 
ing period  that  it  furnishes  unfavorable  conditions  for  the 
development  of  fungus  diseases  on  the  foliage,  nor  have  we  in 
this  state  the  Colorado  beetle  (potato  bug),  which  is  so  destruc- 
tive east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  annually  necessitates  the 
expenditure  of  large  sums  of  money-  for  spraying. 

There  is  little  danger  of  overstocking  the  potato  market  here. 
The  eastern  demand  for  Washington-grown  potatoes  is  good 
and  in  the  past  has  rarely  allowed  the  price  to  fall  below  ten 
dollars  per  ton  in  car  lots.  In  addition  to  this  there  is  a rapidly 
increasing  market  for  our  potatoes  in  Alaska  and  at  home. 
There  are,  however,  few  crops  now  grown  in  Washington  which 
show  greater  variation  in  yield  per  acre  than  the  potato.  This 
crop  responds  to  good  culture  to  a greater  degree  than  most 
others,  and  the  grower  who  exercises  proper  care  with  his  po- 
tatoes is  always  paid  in  yield  and  quality. 

There  are  thousands  of  acres  of  land  now  devoted  to  sum- 
mer-fallow which  might  produce  good  crops  of  potatoes  with 
very  little  additional  expense  and  yet  leave  the  soil  in  better 
condition  for  wheat  than  it  is  under  the  present  methods  of 
summer-fallowing.  The  average  cost  of  producing  potatoes 
in  eastern  Washington  is  a little  less  than  five  dollars  per 
ton.  The  plowing  and  harrowing  which  would  have  to  be 
done  on  the  summer-fallow  land  if  potatoes  were  not  grown 
is  included  in  the  cost.  Therefore,  potatoes  grown  in  the  place 
of  summer  fallow  can  be  sold  for  a very  low  price  and  still 
leave  a good  balance.  If  the  market  remains  as  high  as  it 
has  been  for  many  years  a net  profit  of  fifteen  to  twenty 
dollars  per  acre  from  what  would  otherwise  be  idle  land  can 
easily  be  secured. 

This  bulletin  is  a report  of  an  extended  investigation  of 
the  possibilities  of  profitable  potato  culture  in  Washington. 
The  experiments  were  as  follows: 

1.  Variety  Tests. — Over  225  varieties  were  grown  under 
as  uniform  conditions  as  possible.  In  taking  notes  special  at- 


4 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


tention  was  paid  to  the  yield,  shape,  and  color  of  the  tubers; 
whether  adapted  to  summer  or  winter  market,  long  or  short 
seasons. 

2.  Seed  Selection. — Experiments  were  carried  out  to  de- 
dermine  the  importance  and  practicibility  of  selecting  the  seed 
in  the  field.  Tubers  from  individual  hills  were  planted  and  the 
offspring  were  carefully  studied.  This  was  done  through  three 
generations  and  is  to  be  continued.  This  experimental  study 
was  started  for  three  purposes,  (a)  to  find  a means  of  deter- 
mining the  best  plants  before  digging,  (b)  to  determine  the 
individual  hereditary  tendencies,  and  (c)  to  determine  the 
accumulative  effect  of  selecting  year  after  year. 

3.  Best  Time  to  Plant. — One  variety  was  planted  at  dif- 
ferent times  from  the  second  week  in  April  until  the  10th  of 
June.  Notes  were  also  taken  on  plantings  made  by  farmers. 

4.  Amount  of  seed  per  acre  under  different  conditions. 

5.  Best  distances  apart  for  hills  under  different  condi- 
tions. 

6.  Number  of  Cultivations  per  Season. — One  plot  was 

cultivated  at  intervals  of  once  a week  or  ten  days  during 
the  growing  season  and  on  a second  plot  cultivations  were 
given  after  each  rain  only,  to  maintain  a dust  mulch. 

7.  Destroying  Weeds,  especially  wild  oats,  with  the  harrow 
to  diminish  the  hoeing  and  reduce  the  number  of  row  cultiva' 
tions. 

8.  Mulching  Versus  Cultivation. 

The  results  of  observations  of  field  practices  are  not  given 
in  this  bulletin  except  in  the  summary.  The  results  of  our 
experiments  and  studies  of  methods  of  farm  practices  in  com- 
mercial potato  growing  have  been  briefly  described  in  our 
Popular  Bulletin  No.  11. 


Bulletin  No.  94— Potato  Investigations 


5 


VARIETY  TESTS. 

A large  number  of  varieties  were  tested  in  1905,  1906,  1907 
and  1908.  A full  description  and  behavior  of  the  plants  of 
all  varieties  and  their  yields  would  be  extremely  lengthy,  and 
because  of  that  fact  only  a few  are  briefly  described  and  placed 
in  groups.  In  each  group  the  varieties  are  placed  in  the  order 
of  preference — yield,  shape,  color,  character  of  eyes,  etc., 
being  taken  into  consideration.  The  name  of  each  variety  is 
followed  by  the  initials  of  the  person  or  firm  from  which  the 
seed  was  obtained.  The  addresses  corresponding  to  these 
initials  may  be  found  in  the  list  on  page  17. 

Group  1. — Varieties  that  produce  new  potatoes  early  and 
mature  early  in  the  season. 

New  Queen.  (Y.  & H.) — Marketable  in  seventy-five  days. 
Plants  large,  vigorous,  moderately  spreading.  Tubers  large; 
form  oval  flattened,  regular;  skin,  smooth  light  pink;  eyes 
medium  in  size,  uniform  character,  a little  depressed  and  a little 
brighter  pink  than  the  skin.  A very  good  variety  for  early 
market  and  promising  for  short  season. 

Peck’s  Early  (F.  & P.) — Marketable  seventy-eight  days, 
size,  variable ; form  round  to  oval  slightly  flattened,  irregular ; 
Plants  medium  to  large,  vigorous,  spreading.  Tubers  medium  in 
skin  smooth,  light  pink;  eyes  few,  medium  size,  well  distri 
buted,  shallow,  variable  in  character,  not  conspicuous.  A few 
tubers  have  streaks  of  pink  in  the  flesh.  A very  desirable 
early  variety. 

Pride  of  the  South.  (H.  A.  D).  — This  variety  is  known  by 
several  different  names.  (See  synonyms  page  14).  This  strain 
has  given  better  results  than  the  others.  Plants  medium  in  size 
with  light  green,  large  leaves.  Tubers  medium  to  small;  form 
round,  regular;  skin  finely  netted,  brownish  to  white  with  a 
few  small  blotches;  eyes  small,  bright  pink;  flesh  clear  white. 
A handsome  tuber. 

Iris  Cobbler.  (V  S.)  — Marketable  in  eighty  days.  Plants 
medium  size,  vigorous,  spreading.  Tubers  medium  to  small, 


6 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


uniform  in  size  and  shape;  form  round  very  little  flattened; 
skin  a little  rough,  clear  white;  eyes  small,  inconspicuous.  A 
good  short  season  variety. 

Early  Ohio.  (L.  L.) — Marketable  in  eighty  days.  Plants 
medium  size,  light  green  color.  Tubers  average  small;  form 
oval  slightly  flattened,  regular;  skin  smooth,  light  brownish 
pink ; eyes  medium  number,  rather  small,  shallow.  A very 
good  quality  potato.  Good  strains  of  this  variety  give  good 
yields. 

White  Ohio.  (V.  S.  S.)  — Marketable  in  seventy-five  days. 
Plants  medium  to  large,  moderately  spreading.  Tubers  me- 
dium in  size,  a little  variable ; form  oval,  slightly  flattened,  not 
always  uniform;  skin  smooth,  clear  white;  eyes  variable  in 
character,  medium  in  size,  light  pink. 

Six  Weeks.  (L.  L.  0.) — Marketable  in  eighty-four  days. 
Plants  edium  size,  spreading.  Tubers  medium  to  small;  form 
round  and  oval,  slightly  flattened,  fairly  regular;  skin  smooth 
with  a few  netted  spots  at  one  end,  brownish  pink;  eyes, 
medium  in  size,  shallow  but  somewhat  variable  in  character. 
A few  tubers  have  pink  streaks  in  the  flesh. 

New  Early  Standard.  (H.  A.  D.) — Marketable  in  eighty- 
two  days.  Plants  medium,  vigorous,  healthy,  moderately 
spreading.  Tubers  medium  in  size,  uniform ; form  round  slight- 
ly flattened,  regular ; skin  smooth,  clear  white ; eyes  medium  in 
size,  shallow  and  uniform  in  character.  A very  desirable  early 
maturing  variety. 

King  of  Michigan.  (V.  S.  S.) — Marketable  tubers  in  eighty 

days.  Plants  medium  to  large,  spreading.  Tubers  medium; 
form  round  to  oval  flattened,  regular;  skin  coarsely  netted, 
white ; eyes  small,  shallow,  inconspicuous.  Good  for  short 
season. 

King  of  the  Earliest.  (F.  S.  C.) — This  variety  resembles 
the  Early  Ohio  in  many  respects.  Flesh  white  with  pink 
streaks. 

New  Century.  (K.  S.  C.) — Marketable  in  eighty  days. 

Plants  medium  size,  moderately  spreading.  Tubers  medium 


Bulletin  No.  94 — Potato  Investigations 


7 


size,  uniform;  form  round,  regular;  skin  smooth,  light  pink; 
eyes  medium  in  size.  Flesh  clear  white.  Resembles  the  Ohio. 
A good  variety  for  short  season. 

White  Star.  (H.  A.  D.)  — Marketable  in  eighty-two  adys. 
Plants  medium  in  size.  Tubers  small;  form  oval  flattened,  a 
little  irregular;  skin  smooth,  clear  white;  eyes  medium  to 
small,  shallow;  flesh  clear  white.  Requires  good  soil  and 
plenty  of  moisture. 

Early  Thoroughbred.  (F.  & P.  & H.  B.) — Tubers  market- 
able in  eighty-five  days.  Ripened  early  in  August,  1906,  but 
the  tops  remained  green  until  the  middle  of  September  in 
1907.  Plants  medium  sized  and  vigorous.  Tubers  resemble 
the  Early  Rose,  but  they  are  not  so  long  as  the  Rose.  The 
skin  is  netted,  light  pink;  eyes  medium  to  large  and  sunken. 
Occasionally  a tuber  has  pink  streaks  through  the  flesh.  Quality 
good. 

New  Climax.  (F.  & P.) — Marketable  in  eighty  days.  Plants 
small  to  medium.  Tubers  small,  uniform ; form  round,  slightly 
flattened,  regular;  skin  smooth,  clear  white;  eyes  small  in- 
conspicuous. If  the  tubers  were  larger  this  would  be  almost 
an  ideal  early  maturing  variety. 

Early  Rosie.  (Department). — This  variety  has  given  vari- 
able yields  on  the  Station  grounds.  A few  farmers  have  re- 
ported good  results  with  it.  Marketable  in  eighty-five  days. 
Plants  medium  size,  vigorous.  Tubers  large,  elongated  flat- 
tened, regular;  skin  smooth,  light  pink;  eyes  vary  in  size  and 
appearance.  Flesh  stained  with  pink. 

Group  2.  Varieties  that  produce  new  potatoes  early  and 
mature  in  early  September. 

Sweet  Home.  (F.  & P.) — Marketable  in  eighty-four  days. 
Plants  large,  vigorous,  spreading.  Tubers,  large,  very  uniform 
in  size  and  shape;  form  regular,  oval  flattened;  skin  very  finely 
netted,  clear  white;  eyes  few,  uniform,  small,  shallow;  flesh 
clear  white.  A very  promising  variety  for  main  crop,  in  semi- 
arid  sections. 


8 Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


Champion  of  the  World.  (H.  B.) — A very  desirable  early 

variety.  Marketable  in  eighty  days.  Plants  large,  spreading. 
Tubers  medium  to  large;  form  oblong,  flattened,  regular;  skin 
smooth,  creamy  white ; eyes  variable  in  size  and  depth.  Tubers 
small  in  1908. 

Early  Excelsior.  (Y.  and  H.) — Marketable  tubers  in  eighty- 
four  days.  Plants  medium  to  large.  Tubers  medium  to  large; 
form  oval  flattened,  regular;  skin  netted,  pinkish  yellow; 
eyes,  few,  variable,  medium  to  small,  shallow,  pink.  A good 
summer  variety  for  light  soil. 

Rural  Red.  (K  S.  C.) — Marketable  in  eighty-four  days. 
Plants  large  vigorous,  spreading.  Tubers  large,  uniform;  form 
, oblong,  flattened,  irregular ; skin  smooth,  brownish  pink ; 
eyes  medium  to  small,  shallow,  compound,  variable ; flesh  white 
slightly  tinged  with  pink.  Quality  is  good  but  the  pink  in  the 
flesh  is  objectionable. 

Crine’s  Lightning.  (L.  L.  0.) — Marketable  tubers  in 
eighty  days.  Plants  twelve  to  fifteen  inches  tall,  vigorous, 
spreading.  Tubers  large;  form  elongated  oblong,  flattened, 
slightly  irregular;  skin  netted,  pink  striped  with  different 
shades  of  pink;  eyes  variable  in  depth.  Not  desirable  for  mar- 
ket, but  it  is  a good  quality  potato  for  home  use. 

White  Victor.  (L.  L.  0.)  — Marketable  in  eighty-seven 
days.  Plants  medium  size.  Tubers  medium  to  large,  uniform; 
form  oval  slightly  flattened,  regular;  skin  netted,  dull  white; 
eyes  uniform,  medium  to  small,  shallow;  flesh  white.  Good 
looking  tubers.  A good  yielding  variety  under  favorable 
conditions. 

Early  Hamilton.  (N.  K.  & C.) — Marketable  tubers  in 

eighty-three  days.  Plants  vary  from  small  to  very  large.  Tu- 
bers medium  in  size;  shape  round,  variable;  skin  slightly  net- 
ted, yellowish  white;  eyes  vary  from  medium  to  large,  shallow 
inconspicuous.  Good  quality. 

White  Rose.  (K.  S.  C.) — Marketable  in  seventy-eight  days. 

Plants  medium  in  size,  moderately  spreading.  Tubers  fairly 
uniform,  medium  to  large;  form  elongated,  flattened,  regular; 


Bulletin  No.  94 — Potato  Investigations 


9 


skin  smooth,  white;  eyes  variable  in  character,  but  most  of 
the  tubers  have  medium  sized,  shallow  eyes.  Flesh  clear  white. 

Group  3.  Varieties  that  produce  new  potatoes  early  but 
mature  late. 

Burpee’s  Extra  Early.  (H.  B.) — Marketable  tubers  in 
eighty  days,  but  the  plants  did  not  ripen  until  the  early  part 
of  October.  Plants  fourteen  to  eighteen  inches  tall,  vigorous, 
moderately  spreading.  Tubers  large  and  a little  variable  in 
size;  form  elongated  ablong,  flattened,  fairly  regular;  skin 
smooth  but  a few  are  coarsely  netted,  mottled  with  white 
and  pinkish  yellow;  eyes  'medium  number,  well  distributed, 
quite  shallow  but  variable  in  shape  and  depth. 

Arcadia.  (F.  S.  C.) — Marketable  tubers  in  eighty-seven 
days,  but  the  plants  did  not  mature  until  the  middle  of  October. 
Plants  medium  size.  Tubers  large,  somewhat  variable;  form 
oblong,  flattened,  fairly  regular;  skin  smooth,  clear  white; 
eyes  few,  small,  shallow. 

Bovee.  (H.  B.)  — Marketable  tubers  in  seventy-eight  to 
eighty-two  days.  Plants  eighteen  to  twenty  inches  t<ll, 
vigorous,  moderately  spreading.  Tubers  medium  to  large,  in- 
clined to  be  variable;  form  elongated  oblong,  slightly  flattened, 
not  regular;  skin  netted  at  the  seed  end,  white,  with  t slight 
tinge  of  pink;  eyes  quite  variable  in  size  and  depth.  Not  extra 
for  market. 

Early  Jewel.  (H.  B.) — Is  subject  to  second  growth. 

Algoma.  (L.  L.  M.  C 0.) — Marketable  tubers  in  seventy- 
eight  days.  The  tubers  are  inclined  to  be  variable  in  size  and 

shape. 

Crown  Jewel.  (J.  & S.) — Marketable  in  eighty-four  days 
Ripe  in  October.  Plants  medium  in  size.  • Tubers  large,  uni- 
form; form  oval  flattened,  regular;  skin  smooth,  white;  eyes 
large,  doop. 

Group  4.  Varieties  that  produce  good  marketable  potatoes 
and  ripen  early  in  the  fall.  Promising  for“Palouse  Country” 
and  some  parts  of  the  “Big  Bend.” 


10 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


American  Wonder.  (H.  B.).  —Plants  large,  vigorous,  with 
many  branches.  Tubers  large,  uniform;  form  elongated  ob- 
long, quite  regular;  skin  smooth,  clear  white;  eyes  medium  in 
number  and  size,  shallow;  flesh  creamy  white.  A good  early 
maturing  main  crop  potato. 

White  Lily  (Carl  Engle,  Coupeville,  Wash) — This  variety 
is  grown  very  extensively  on  Whidby  Island.  The  tubers 
resemble  the  Burbank  but  the  plants  mature  earlier.  Plants 
large,  foliage  light  groon.  Tubers  uniform,  large ; form  elon- 
gated oval,  somewhat  flattened,  regular;  skin  finely  netted, 
clear  white ; eyes  medium  number,  well  distributed,  ‘medium  to 
small,  shallow,  inconspicuous. 

Carman  No.  1 (H.  B.j — A very  desirable,  fairly  early  ma- 
turing main  crop  potato,  especially  for  light  soils.  Plants 
medium  in  size.  Tubers  medium  to  large,  fairly  uniform ; form 
oval  flattened,  regular ; skin  a little  russeted,  white ; eyes  few, 
well  distributed,  small,  shallow;  flesh  clear  white. 

Pink  Eyed  Seedling.  (C.  B.  B.)  (Tested  one  year.) — Plants 
medium  in  size,  spreading.  Tuber  medium  size,  very  regular 
and  uniform ; form  oval  flattened ; skin  netted,  white ; eyes  few 
well  distributed,  inconspicuous;  flesh  white.  The  tubers  ap- 
pear well. 

Green  Mountain.  (Y.  & H.) — V few  farmers  in  Eastern 
Washington  report  favorable  results  with  this  variety.  Tn  1907 
the  tops  were  all  dead  the  5th  of  October.  Plants  large.  Tnbers 
large;  form  round  and  oblong  slightly  flattened,  a little  ir- 
regular and  variable;  skin  a little  coarsely  netted,  white;  e\ es 
medium  in  number,  well  distributed,  medium  size  and  some- 
what variable  in  character.  Very  good  in  quality. 

New  Burbank.  (J.  A.  S.) — For  our  climate  and  soil  condi- 
tions this  variety  is  superior  to  the  Burbank.  Plants  are  a 
little  smaller  than  the  Burbank  plants  but  otherwise  they  ap- 
pear the  same.  Tubers  medium  to  large,  uniform;  form  elon- 
gated oblong,  regular;  skin  smooth,  a few  fairly  netted,  clear 
white;  eyes  medium  in  number,  well  distributed,  shallow  and 
uniform  in  character.  Matures  latter  part  of  September. 


Bulletin  No.  94 — Potato  Investigations 


11 


Netted  Gem.  (L.  L.  M.  & C.). — Plants  medium  to  large, 
uneven.  Tubers  large ; form  elongated,  spindle ; skin  rough,  yel- 
lowish, with  russet  netting;  eyes  medium  number,  well  dis- 
tributed, inconspicuous;  flesh  white.  A fair  yielding,  good 
for  home  use  and  banking  purpose. 

Sir  Walter  Raleigh.  (V.  S.  S.)— A very  good  variety  of 
the  Rural  type.  It  matures  fairly  early  and  is  less  liable  to 
become  hollow  than  the  Rural  New  Yorker.  Plants  medium 
sized.  Tubers  uniform,  large ; form  flattened  oblong  to  round, 
regular;  skin  finely  netted,  clear  white;  eyes  few,  well  dis- 
tributed, medium  size,  shallow,  inconspicuous. 

Vermont  Gold  Coin.  (W.  A.  B.) — This  is  avery  promising 
main  crop  potato.  Although  it  gives  a large  yield  it  does 
not  require  a very  long  season  to  mature.  Plants  very  large, 
vigorous.  Tubers  uniformly  large ; form  oval  and  slightly 
flattened  oblong,  regular;  skin  finely  netted,  yellowish 
white;  eyes  few,  well  distributed,  medium  size,  shallow. 

Washington  Wonder.  (C.  B.  B.)  (Tested  one  year). — 
Plants  medium  to  large,  compact,  dark  green  foliage.  Tubers 
medium  size;  form  oval  flattened;  skin  smooth,  white;  eyes 
few,  small,  inconspicuous ; flesh  white.  The  tubers  present  a 
good  appearance  and  a fair  yield  was  obtained. 

Group  5.  Heavy  yielding  varieties  that  mature  late  in 
the  season.  Require  a long  season,  good  soil  and  a large 
amount  of  moisture. 

New  Late  White  Nebraska.  (V.  S.  S.) — Plants  medium  to 
large,  dark  green.  Tubers  medium  size;  form  oval  flattened; 
skin  smooth,  white;  eyes  few,  well  distributed,  shallow,  in- 
conspicuous; flesh  white.  A handsome  potato. 

Burbank.  (H.  B.) — At  present  the  Burbank  is  grown  in 
the  state  more  than  any  other  variety.  In  a few  sections 
it  is  all  that  could  be  desired  for  late  variety,  especially 
on  light  soil,  but  it  does  not  give  good  satisfaction  in  other 
sections.  It  frequently  does  not  mature  well  and  it  has  a 
strong  tendency  to  make  a second  growth,  (produce  knobby 
tubers).  Some  strains  of  the  variety  are  better  than  others. 


12 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


Plants  large  to  very  large.  Tubers  large;  form  elono- 
gated,  flattened,  not  always  regular;  Iskin  smooth,  clear 
white;  eyes  medium  in  number,  well  distributed,  medium 
size,  somewhat  variable  in  character. 

Governor  Folk.  (J.  A.  S.) — A heavy  yielding  potato,  but 
it  requires  a very  long  season.  Plants  large,  vigorous,  spread- 
ing. Tubers  large,  fairly  uniform  size;  form  round,  flattened 
slightly  elonogated;  skin  finely  netted  white;  eyes  few,  well 
distributed,  vearying  from  small  to  large,  but  most  of  them 
are  shallow. 

Peerless.  (J.  W.)  (Tested  one  year). — Plants  large, 
spreading,  dark  green  foliage.  Tubers  medium  size;  form 
oblong  flattened ; skin  finely  netted,  white ; eyes  variable,  some 
deep  but  most  of  them  are  shallow;  flesh  white. 

Ross  Favorite.  (H.  B.) — A good  market  variety,  but  it 
requires  a long  season.  It  resembles  the  Rural  New  Yorker 
No.  2.  Plants  variable  in  size,  vigorous,  moderately  spreading. 
Tubers  uniformly  large ; form  variable,  short,  oval ; skin  finely 
netted,  dull  white;  eyes  few,  well  distributed,  shallow,  but 
a little  variable  in  character. 

Rural  New  Yorker  No.  2.  (N.,  K.  & C.  and  H.  B.) — One  of 
the  best-known  late  varieties.  It  is  remarkable  for  its  smooth, 
white,  short  flattened,  oblong  tubers.  It  has  a tendency  to 
grow  too  large  and  hollow  in  some  sections  of  the  State,  on 
rich  soil,  when  the  hills  are  too  far  apart  or  not  enough  seed  is 
used  per  acre.  It  requires  a long  season. 

Snowflake  Jr.  (C.  B.  0.) — Plants  large,  vigorous.  Tubers 
medium  to  large,  uniform ; flattened  round,  very  regular ; skin 
finely  netted,  clear  white;  eyes  few,  well  distributed,  medium 
size,  shallow.  A handsome  tuber.  Requires  a long  season. 

Snowflake  Jr.  (C.  B.  C.) — Plants  large,  vigorous.  Tubers 
medium  to  large,  uniform ; form  flattened  round,  very  regular ; 
skin  finely  netted,  clear  white;  eyes  few,  well  distributed, 
medium  size,  shallow.  A handsome  tuber.  Requires  a long 
season. 

Carman  No.  3.  (N,  K.  & C.) — This  is  a good  variety  on 
account  of  its  size,  shape,  color  and  shallow  eyes.  The  Rura] 


Bulletin  No.  94 — Potato  Investigations 


13 


type.  Plants  medium  in  size.  Tubers  uniformly  large;  form 
round  to  oblong,  flattened,  regular;  skin  finely  netted,  clear 
white;  eyes  few,  well  distributed,  medium  size,  shallow. 

White  Beauty.  (P.  S.  B.  G.) — A very  promising  variety,  but 
it  requires  a long  season.  Plants  medium  size.  Tubers  large; 
form  flattened  round,  quite  regular;  skin  smooth,  clear  white; 
eyes  few,  well  distributed,  medium  size,  shallow,  in- 
conspicuous. 

White  Mammoth.  (F.  & P.) — It  resembles  the  Rural  New 
Yorker,  but  does  not  have  the  tendency  to  grow  too  large  or  be- 
come hollow.  Plants  medium  to  large.  Tubers  very  uniform, 
large ; form  slightly  flattened  oval,  regular ; skin  smooth,  clear 
white;  eyes  few,  well  distributed,  small,  shallow;  flesh  clear 
white. 

North  Pole  Easterly.  (H.  B.) — Plants  very  large,  vigorous, 
moderately  spreading.  Tubers  large;  form  slightly  flattened 
long,  but  variable;  skin  finely  netted,  clear  white;  eyes  very 
variable  in  character,  but  a large  number  of  them  are  medium 
in  size  and  shallow. 

Harvest  King.  (F  & P.) — Requires  long  season.  Plants 
small  to  medium,  spreading.  Tubers  large,  uniform ; form  slight- 
ly flattened  round  to  oblong,  fairly  regular ; skin  finely  netted, 
white;  eyes  few,  well  distributed,  medium  to  small,  shallow 
but;  somewhat'  variable  in  character. 

Great  Divide. — (W.  A.  B.  & H.  B.) — Plants  large.  Tubera 
uniformly  large ; form  elongated  oblong,  but  not  flattened,  re- 
gular; skin  finely  netted,  clear  white;  eyes  many,  well  dis- 
tributed, medium  size,  shallow  but  a little  variable  in  character. 

North  Pole  Stinnett.  (H.  B .) — Plants  large,  spreading. 
Tubers  large;  form  much  elongated,  irregular;  skin  finely 
netted,  yellowish  white;  eyes  few,  well  distributed,  medium 
size,  moderately  deep.  Some  second  growth. 

Group  6.  Heavy  yielding  varieties,  undesirable  for  market 
purposes,  but  advantageously  grown  for  stock  feed.  A few 
are  good  for  market  purposes  in  unfavorable  seasons. 


14 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


Johnson’s  Seedling.  (H.  B.) — Plants  very  large.  Tubers 

very  large,  variable  in  size  and  shape;  skin  pink,  rough;  eyes 
large,  prominent.  Subject  to  second  growth. 

Purple  and  Gold.  (H.B.)  — There  are  two  kinds  of  tubers 
in  this  variety  and  neither  strain  is  desirable  for  market  pur- 
poses, but  they  give  heavy  yields. 

Pingree.  (N,  G.  & C.)  — This  is  a very  prolific  variety,  but 
the  tubers  vary  too  much  in  size  and  shape  to  be  desirable  for 
market  purposes.  Plants  very  large.  Tubers  large,  Irregular ; 
form  flattened  oval  to  oblong;  skin  finely  netted,  clear  white; 
eyes  few,  shallow  and  variable  in  character.  Gave  good  re- 
sults in  1908. 

Red  Jacket.  (K.  S.  C.) — Not  good  for  market  purposes  on 
account  of  the  very  large  irregular,  rough  pink  tubers  with  red 
tinged  flesh. 

Empress  of  India.  (H.  B.) — A good  yielding  potato  but  it  is 
not  desirable  for  market  on  account  of  its  light  purple  skin. 

Synonyms,  some  of  which  are  described  above. 

Bliss  Triumph  (H.  A.  D.),  Bliss  Red  Triumph  (W.  H.  M.), 
andRed  River  Early  Triumph  (L.  L.  0.),  are  from  all  appear- 
ances exactly  the  same  variety.  Too  small  to  be  of  much  value. 

Early  Ohio  (L.  L.  0.),  Extra  Early  Ohio  (N.,  K.  C.),  Im- 
proved Early  Ohio  (V.  S.  S.),  Ohio  Junior  (P.  S.  B.),  Red 
River  Acme  (L.  L.  0.),  and  Red  River  Early  Ohio  (L.  L.  0.), 
are  from  all  outward  appearances  of  the  plants  and  tubers  the 
same.  Early  Triumph  (J.H.C.),  Harleinger  (H.  B.),  and 
White  Star  (H.  A.  D.),  resemble  the  above  varieties  in  many 
respects. 

Early  Rose  (Hort.  Dept,  and  H.  B.),  Prolific  Rose  (F.  & C.), 

are  nhuch  alike. 

Early  White  Triumph  (I.  S.  C.),  Norton  Beauty  (J.  M.  T. 
& Co.),  Pride  of  the  South  (H.  A.  D.),  Quick  Lunch  (Uncle 
Gideon)  (W.  A.  B.),  and  White  Triumph  (V.  S.  S.),  are  from 

all  appearances  the  same  variety.  Junior  Pride  (H.  B.),  is  the 
same  as  the  above  in  all  characteristics,  with  one  exception. 
The  sprouts  on  the  latter  are  tinged  with  pink  and  the  sprouts 
on  the  former  are  not  colored. 


Bulletin  No.  94 — Potato  Investigations 


15 


Red  River  White  Ohio  (L.  L.  0.)  and  White  Ohio  (F.  S. 

C.  and  V.  S.  S.)  are  exactly  the  same. 

The  tubers  of  Rose  of  the  North  (I.  S.  C.)  are  a little 
lighter  colored  than  are  Seedling  of  Early  Rose  (H.  B.),  but 
otherwise  the  plants  and  tubers  are  exactly  the  same. 

Discarded  Varieties — Not  Worthy  of  Description. 
Asparagus,  (H.  B.). 

Banner  (P.  S.  B.  G.),  Bartlett,  (P.  S.  B.  G.),  Bliss  Triumph 
(H.  A.  D.),  Bliss  Red  Triumph  (W.  H.  M.),  Blue  Victor,  (H. 

B. ,)  Bonanza  (A.  A.  R.  S.  C.),  Breed’s  Seedling  (C.  B.  B.),  Bur- 
banks’ Seedling,  (H.  A.  D.). 

Champion  (H.  B.),  Chnoays  (H.  B.),  Clinton  (L.  L.  0.), 
Columbian  (P.  S.  B.  G.),  Commercial  (L.  L.  0.),  Considerable 
Seed  (P.  S.  B.  G.). 

Delaware  (K.  S.  C.). 

Earliest  (J.  A.  S.),  Early  Andes  (P.  S.  B.  G.),  Early  Mar- 
ket (L.  L.  O.),  Early  May  (0.  E.  A.  B.),  Early  Michigan  (K.  S. 

C. ),  Early  Minnesota  Rose  (F.S.  C.),  Early  Northerner  (H.  B.), 
Early  Pinkeye  (F.  & P.),  Early  Pioneer  (P.  S.  B.  G.),  Early 
Puritan  (H.  B.),  Early  Regent  (H.  B.),  Early  Snowball  (F.  & 
P.),  Early  Triumph  (J.  H.  C.),  Early  Vermont  (H.  B.),  Early 
White  Harvest  (J.  A.  S.),  Early  White  Triumph  (I.  S.  C.), 
Early  Wisconsin  (J.  A.  S.),  Empire  State  (0.  A.  E.  B.),  Extra 
Early  Eureka  (L.  L.  0.). 

Freeman  (W.  H.  M.  and  H.  B.). 

Garnechills  (J.  W.),  Garnet  Chily  (H.  B.),  Good  Time  (J. 
A.  S.),  Goroachi  (Japan),  Gov.  LaFollette  (J.  A.  S.). 

Harleinger  (H.  B.),  New’s  Early  (V.  S.  S.)  , Hundred 
Fold  (H.  B.). 

Ionia  Seeding  (L.  L.  0.),  Irish  Belle  (0.  A.  E.  B.). 

Junior  Pride  (H.  B.),  Junior  Pride  of  the  South  (H.  B.). 
Kennewick  (H.  B.),  Kokhaida  (Japan). 

Late  Rose  (J.  W.),  Leopard  (C.  B.  B.),  Lincoln  (P.  S.  B. 
G.),  Long  Red  Horn  (H.  B.),  Livingston  (0.  A.  E.  B.). 


16 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


Maggie  Murphy  ( H.  B.),  Main  Crop  No.  2 (P.  S.  B.  G.), 
Mann’s  Enormous  (V.  S.  S.),  Martin’s  Horn  (H.  B.),  Medium 
(P.  S.  B.  G.),  Milwaukee  (C.  B.  C.),  Mountain  Prizetaker  (L. 
L.  0.). 

Ohio  Junior  (P.  S.  B.  G.),  Okame  (Japane). 

Pat’s  Choice  (L.  L.  O.),  Pearl  of  Cannon  Valley  (F.  S.  C.), 

Nort  Beauty  (J.  M.  T.  & C.),  North  Pole  (H.  B.). 

Planet  (0.  A.  E.  B.),  Potentate  (F.  & P.),  President  Mc- 
Kinley (P.  S.  B.  G.),  Prosperity  (K.  S.  C.),  Prolific  Rose  (F.  & 
C.),  Pure  Gold  (P.  S.  B.  G.),  Phoebus  (Central  Russian  and 
U.  S.  Dept.  Agrl.) 

Quick  Lunch  (Uncle  Gideon)  (W.  A.  B.). 

Red  River  Acme  (L.  L.  0.),  Red  River  Early  Triumph 
(L.  L.  0.),  Reliance  (H.  B.),  Rose  of  the  North  (I.  S.  C.),  Rust 
Proof  Hullets  (P.  S.  B.  G.). 

Scab  Proof  (J.  A.  S,),  Seedling  of  Early  Rose  (H.  B.),  State 
of  Maine  (H.  A.  D.),  Silver  Coin  (C.  B.  B.),  Snohomish  (C.  B. 
B.),  Suck’s  Dwarf  (Hort.  Dept),  Sunlight  (J.  A.  S.),  Emperor 
(W.  A.  B.),  Supreme  (H.  B.). 

Tannenyophen  (H.  B.),  Temple  (H.  B.). 

Up-to-Date  (P.  S.  B.  G.),  Uncle  Sam  (P.  H.). 

Vignosa  (J.  A.  S.),  Viol  (Central  Russia  and  U.  S.  Dept. 
Agrl.),  Violet  Mommoth  (F.  S.  C.),  Vornehm  (L.  L.  0.). 

Washington  F.  & P.),  "Washington  Early  (S.  P.  F.),  Walt- 
mann  (Central  Russia  and  U.  S.  Dept.  Agrl.),  White  Elephant 
(H.  B.),  White  Triumph  (V.  S.  S.),  Wilson’s  First  Choice  (H. 
B.),  Windsor  Castle  (H.  B.),  Wonderful  (P.  S.  B.  G.). 

SEED  FIRMS. 

A list  of  the  initials  and  corresponding  names  and  ad- 
dresses of  seed  firms  and  individuals  who  furnished  seed  for 
these  variety  tests. 

0.  A.  E.  B. — Baldwin,  0.  A.  E.,  Brigham,  Michigan. 

H.  A.  B.  S.  Co. — Berry,  H.  A.  Seed  Co.,  Clarinda,  Pa. 

C.  B.  B. — Breed,  C.  B.,  Bothell,  "Wash. 


Bulletin  No.  94 — Potato  Investigations 


17 


W.  A.  B. — Burpee,  W.  Atlee  & Co.,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

H.  B. — Benthien,  Henry,  Fife,  Pierce  Co.,  Wash. 

C.  B.  Co. — Currie  Bros.  Co.,  Milwaukee.  Wi.s 

H.  A.  D. — Dreer,  H.  A.,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

C.  E. — Engle,  Carl,  Coupeville,  Wash. 

F.  S.  Co. — Fanner  Seed  Co.,  Faribault,  Minn. 

R.  J.  F.  & Co. — Farquhar,  R.  & J.  & Co.,  Boston,  Mass. 

F.  & P. — Flansburgh  & Pierson,  Leslie,  Michigan. 

S.  B.  G. — Green,  Prof.  S.  B.,  Minneapolis,  Minn. 

J.  H.  Co. — Harris,  Joseph,  Co.,  Coldwater,  N.  Y. 

P.  H.  & Co. — Henderson,  Peter  & Co.,  New  York  City.  N.  Y. 

I.  S.  Co. — Iowa  Seed  Co.,  Des  Moines,  Iowa. 

J.  & S. — Johnson  & Stokes,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

K.  S.  Co. — Kansas  Seed  Co.,  Kansas  City,  Mo. 

W.  H.  M. — Meuls,  Wm.  Henry,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

L.  L.  M.  & Co. — May,  L.  L.  & Co.,  St.  Paul,  Minn. 

N.  K.  & Co. — Northrup,  King  & Co.,  Minneapolis,  Minn. 

L.  L.  0. — Olds,  L.  I.,  Madison,  Wis. 

J.  A.  S. — Salzer,  John  A.,  La  Crosse,  Wis. 

J.  W. — Wood,  Janies,  Bristol,  Wash. 

V.  S.  S. — Vaughn’s  Seed  Store,  Chicago,  111. 

U.  S.  D.  A.— U.  S.  Dept,  of  Agruculture,  Washington,  D.  0. 
Y.  & H. — Young  & Halsted,  Troy,  N.  Y. 


18 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


SEED  SELECTION. 

• Introduction. 

Farmers  do  not  think  of  selecting  the  poor  animals  for 
sires  and  dams,  nor  do  they  plant  their  unmarketable  grain; 
but  many  plant  potatoes  which  are  of  no  value  except  for 
stock  feed.  The  question  is  asked,  “Why  do  varieties  run 
out?”  There  are  almost  as  many  theories  advanced  and  re- 
medies given  for  this  running  out  as  there  are  growers.  A 
few  of  the  remedies  given  are  : “Plant  when  the  moon  is 
bright  * ’“Always  plant  large  tubers”:  “Never  plant  ‘seeds 
ends’:  “Always  leave  one  or  two  eyes  to  a piece”:  “Exchange 
seed,  etc.”  None  of  the  above  remedies  will  prevent  the  varie- 
ties from  running  out.  Varieties  run  out  when  the  seed  is  not 
proprly  selected  from  year  to  year.  The  place  to  select  seed  is 
in  the  field. 

If  the  variety  is  a good  one  to  start  with,  any  farmer 
with  the  proper  knowledge  can  maintain  its  productiveness 
and  quality  with  comparatively  little  time  and  expense,  and 
the  careful  farmer  can  increase  its  productiveness  and  im- 
prove its  quality.  There  are  few  plants  under  cultivation 
that  are  more  susceptible  to  variation  than  the  potato.  The 
more  a plant  varies  the  greater  is  the  chance  for  improvement 
with  proper  methods  of  selection,  as  is  also  the  corresponding 
tendency  to  deteriorate  when  poor  methods  are  practiced.  As 
we  dig  potatoes  or  look  at  them  in  the  bin,  we  cannot  but 
note  the  remarkable  lack  of  similarity,  or  the  tendency  to  varia- 
tion, that  is  exhibited.  It  is  a noticeable  fact  that  some  hills 
will  have  a large  number  of  tubers,  uniform  in  size  and  shape, 
while  other  hills  grown  under  the  same  conditions  will  have  a 
few  ill-shaped  tubers  or  one  large  tuber  and  a few  small  ones. 
(See  cut).  A tuber  from  a vigorous,  productive  plant,  though 
small  because  it  started  late  and  did  not  have  time  to  de- 
velop full  size,  would  possess  and  transmit  the  characteristics 
of  its  worthy  parent.  So  also  the  only  large  tuber  from  the 
poor  hill,  in  which  it  alone  attained  marketable  size,  would 


Bulletin  No.  94 — Potato  Investigations 


19 


Fig.  1.  Variety — White  Mammoth. 

Tubers — Pile  to  the  right  selected  hills.  Pile  to  the  left,  medi- 
um to  poor  hills. 


inherit  the  tendencies  of  its  parent.  We  see  then  that  inspec- 
tion of  the  individual  tuber  alone  will  not  enable  us  to  judge 
whether  or  not  it  inherits  desirable  characteristics.  So  the 
farmer  when  selecting  from  the  bin  or  pit  can  tell  nothing 
about  the  parentage  of  the  large  or  small  potatoes.  If  he 


Fig.  2.  Variety — White  Mammoth. 

Plants. 

Two  rows  to  the  left  of  line  from  selected  hills.  Two  rows  to 
right  of  line  from  medium  to  poor  hills. 


20 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


selects  all  large  tubers  from  the  bin  the  large  potatoes  from 
the  poor  hills  will  be  selected,  as  well  as  those  from  good  hills, 
and  the  small  tubers  with  good  hereditary  tendencies,  will 
be  rejected.  (See  Fig.  2).  To  know  the  hereditary  tendencies,  we 
must  know  the  characteristics  of  the  hill  and  the  vigor  of 
the  plant.  The  whole  plant,  then,  and  not  the  single  tuber, 
must  be  taken  as  the  unit  for  selection.  The  place  to  do  this 
is  in  the  field,  where  the  whole  plant  can  be  examined. 

Farmers  frequently  ask,  Which  is  best  for  seed,  large  or 
small  potatoes?  The  small  tubers  from  the  good  hills  can  be 
taken  without  any  ill  results,  provided  they  are  not  smaller 
than  the  cut  pieces.  When  the  time  for  field  selection  is 
passed  and  the  potatoes  for  seed  must  be  taken  from  the  bin  or 
pit,  it  is  best  to  select  the  medium  sized  tubers. 

Seed  Selection  Experiments. 

To  study  the  inherited  tendencies  in  hills,  cwo  or  more 
hills  of  several  varieties  were  selected  in  1906  and  the  tubers 
from  each  hill  were  planted  separately  in  1907.  The  following 
Table  I.  gives  weight  of  tubers  in  selected  hills,  a short  state- 
ment of  condition  of  tubers,  yield  per  acre,  and  a short  state- 
ment of  condition  of  crop  in  1907.  The  habits  of  the  plants 
were  also  studied  quite  carefully. 

The  selection  experiments  teach  that  the  heaviest  yield- 
ind  hills  are  not  always  the  best  for  seed,  and  that  to  select 
hills  for  seed  intelligently  the  number  of  plants  in  a hill  must 
be  taken  into  consideration.  This  was  done  when  the  hills  were 
setected  for  the  1908  crop. 

In  1908  two  plots  each  of  twelve  varieties  of  potatoes 
were  planted.  One  plot  of  each  variety  was  planted  with 
seed  selected  from  the  best  hills.  Large  and  small  tubers  of 
the  hills  were  planted.  The  other  plot  was  planted  with  seed 
selected  from  the  medium  to  poor  hills.  A large  percent  of  the 
tubers  from  the  medium  to  poor  hills  would  usually  be  taken 
by  the  farmer  if  the  tubers  were  taken  from  the  bin  for  seed. 
As  near  as  was  possible,  the  two  plots  of  each  variety  had 
the  same  kind  of  soil  and  treatment.  The  results  are  given  in 
the  following  Table  II. 


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TABLE  II  First  Years*  Selection  and  Results 


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Average 

Average  gain  of  marketable  potatoes  per  acre.  4843  pounds. 


Bulletin  No.  94 — Potato  Investigations 


23 


The  crop  from  the  good  hills  not  only  was  about  one-third 
larger,  but  the  tubers  were  more  uniform  in  size  and  ap- 
pearance than  those  from  the  medium  to  poor  hills. 

The  medium  and  medium  to  poor  hills,  taken  as  a whole, 
were  not  as  good  as  the  careful  farmer  would  take  for  seed 
from  the  bin,  but  he  would  be  sure  to  get  very  little  better. 
It  has  been  the  writer’s  purpose  to  select,  for  several  years, 
the  good  hills  for  seed  from  the  offsprings  of  the  good  hills, 
and  the  medium  to  poor  hills  for  seed  from  the  offsprings 
of  the  medium  to  poor  hills,  to  show  the  cumulative  effect  of 
repeatedly  selecting  good  hills;  also  to  prove  that  potatoes 
* ‘run  out”  by  constantly  taking  for  seed  large  and  small 
tubers  from  the  poor  hills. 

The  varieties  given  in  Table  II  are  to  be  used  to  continue 
the  experiment.  This  has  been  done  for  two  years  wtih 
three  varieties  and  the  results  are  given  in  Table  III. 

What  to  Look  for  When  Selecting  Hills. 

When  selecting  potatoes  in  the  field  the  farmer  must 
have  an  ideal  hill  in  mind  for  each  variety  and  adhere 
strictly  to  that  ideal  when  selecting.  If  one  selects  only  large- 
yielding  hills  without  taking  other  things  into  consideration, 
he  will  not  attain  the  highest  success.  (See  Table  I.) 

The  following  things  should  be  taken  into  consideration : 

1.  The  number  of  plants  to  a hill.  It  is  not  fair  to  com- 
pare a hill  having  two  or  more  plants  with  another  with  one 
plant.  It  is  better  to  compare  hills  having  an  equal  number 
of  plants  and  select  the  best.  When  a large  piece  having  two 
or  more  eyes  is  placed  in  a hill,  there  are  likely  to  be  more 
plants  springing  from  it  than  from  a neighboring  hill  which 
received  a smaller  seed  piece.  The  hill  with  many  plants 
has  just  the  same  amount  of  space,  plant  food, 
and  moisture  that  its  neighbor  has;  therefore,  it  may  not  be 
able  to  develop  all  the  tubers  to  marketable  size,  but  only  a 
small  proportion  of  them.  If  all  the  many  tubers  in  such  a 
hill  are  uniform  in  shape  and  size  and  color,  though  they  be 
a little  under  marketable  size,  they  are  better  for  seed  than 


24 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


the  neighboring  hill  having  one  plant  bearing  one  or  two  large 
tubers  and  other  small,  ill-shaped  ones. 

2.  The  yield.  Other  things  being  equal,  the  largest  yield- 
ing hills  should  be  selected. 

3.  The  shape.  We  have  varieties  of  all  imaginable  shapes 
but  the  shape  desired  by  most  markets  is  a slightly  flattened 
round,  oval,  or  oblong  tuber.  The  tubers  selected  should  have 
the  variety  characteristics. 

Many  claim  that  the  tendency  of  tubers  to  become  pointed 
or  drawn  out  at  the  seed  or  stem  end  indicate  lack  of  vigor. 
Mr.  C.  E.  Flint  of  Blaine,  Washington,  says:  “I  have  used  the 
following  plan  for  a few  years  and  am  sure  it  pays.  I am 
careful  to  select  only  tubers  that  are  full  at  the  ends.  I have 
followed  this  method  with  the  “Rose,”  starting  with  seed 
that  was  about  worthless.  I have  this  year  three  rows  thirty 
rods  long,  which  yielded  at  the  rate  of  five  hundred  bushels 
per  acre.” 

Methods  of  Selection  Used  by  Farmers. 

Several  successful  growers  west  of  the  Cascade  Moun- 
tains practice  taking  the  tubers  just  below  the  marketable  size 
from  the  good  hills.  When  the  crop  is  dug  by  hand  this  is  a 
very  good  method. 

Others  who  dig  by  hand  throw  two  rows  together  and 
when  a good  hill  is  found  throw  all  the  tubers  in  the  opposite 
direction,  to  be  picked  up  separately  for  seed.  The  latter  me- 
thod is  preferable  except  when  cut  seed  is  accompanied  with 
danger  of  decay,  because  one  can  select  closer  since  fewer  hills 
will  be  required;  and  there  is  likely  to  be  a tendency  when  the 
former  method  is  employed  to  take  medium  sized  tubers  from 
hills  that  do  not  have  ideal  characteristics. 

Many  farmers  in  this  state  and  in  Michigan  are  practicing 
the  above  methods  and  they  all  say  that  they  never  expect  to  go 
back  to  the  old  method  of  taking  seed  from  the  general  crop  in 
the  bin.  One  farmer  in  Michigan  told  the  writer  that  he  had 
practiced  the  latter  method  for  four  years  and  the  fourth  year 


Bulletin  No.  94 — Potato  Investigations 


25 


Fig  3.  Variety — White  Mammoth.  Pile  to  right,  from  seleced 
hills.  Pile  to  left,  from  medium  to  poor  hills. 


Fig.  4.  Variety — Dewey.  Pile  to  right,  7 good  hills,  weight 
22  lbs.  Pile  to  left,  18  poor  hills,  weight,  5 lbs.  Note  the  dif- 
ference in  product,  under  the  same  condition  of  soil  and  care. 


Fig.  5.  Variety — Harvest  King.  Pile  to  the  right,  five  good 
hills,  weight  32  lbs.  Pile  to  the  left,  14  medium  to  poor  hills, 

. weight,  62  lbs.  Note  the  large  tubers  in  medium  to  poor  hills, 
which  would  be  taken  in  case  large  tubers  were  selected  from 
the  bin. 


26 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


the  seed  selected  in  the  field  averaged  fifty  bushels  per  acre 
more  than  the  bin  selected  seed. 

Neither  one  of  the  above  methods  can  be  practiced  where 
labor  is  high  and  a horse  digger  is  used,  but  practically  the 
same  results  can  be  secured  by  the  following  method. 

Selection  Seed  in  Field  When  Horse  Diggers  Are  Used. 

For  the  sake  of  convenience  ten  acres  is  adopted  as  the 
area  a man  grows  each  year  and  harvests  by  means  of  a horse 
digger. 

1.  The  first  selection  is  made  at  large  in  this  ten  acre  plot, 
a field  large  enough  to  afford  abundant  opportunity  for 
choice  of  plants.  Each  hill  in  the  field  should  be  somewhat 
carefully  examined,  special  attention  being  given  to  the  vigor, 
freedom  from  disease,  habit  of  the  plant,  etc.,  and  a few  of 
those  which  appear  to  be  distinctly  superior  to  the  general 
crop  are  marked  with  small  sticks. 

2.  Before  the  main  crop  is  dug  with  the  digger,  each  marked 
hill  is  dug  separately  by  hand.  Those  hills  coming  up  to  the 
standard  are  taken  for  seed  and  all  others  thrown  out. 

3.  Second  year  seed  from  the  selected  hills  is  planted  along- 
side of  the  regular  selected  seed  and  given  the  same  treatment. 
It  is  best  to  dig  this  plot  of  selected  seed  by  hand  and  select 
the  best  hills,  to  continue  the  line  selected,  and  take  the 
balance  of  the  tubers,  large  and  small,  to  plant  the  main 
crop  the  third  year. 

Until  the  farmer  definitely  settles  in  his  own  mind  the 
importance  of  selection,  by  differences  in  yield,  he  should 
plant  at  least  a few  rows  of  ordinary  seed  in  the  same  field 
and  give  both  the  same  cultural  attention,  and  compare  the 
yields  obtained  from  line  selected  seed  with  ordinary  seed. 
The  comparison  will  show  the  great  profit  which  may  be  se- 
curred  from  the  extra  expense  of  line  selected  seed. 

If  the  farmer  has  been  digging  by  hand  and  wishes  to  get 
a digger,  he  may  use  one  of  the  methods  described  above  while 
he  practices  digging  by  hand.  He  will  then  have  good  se- 
lected seed  to  start  with  when  this  method  is  to  be  practiced. 


Bulletin  No.  94 — Potato  Investigations 


27 


Other  things  being  equal,  the  closer  the  selection  is  performed 
the  first  year,  the  better  the  results  that  will  be  obtained  in 
subsequent  years.  If  the  farmer  is  an  expert  at  picking  out 
the  best  hills  before  they  are  dug,  the  small  plot  may  also  be 
dug  with  the  digger,  after  the  best  hills  are  taken  out  to  con- 
tinue the  line  of  selection,  thereby  reducing  the  hand  digging 
to  a minimum.  Only  after  long  experience  can  a person  become 
an  expert  at  telling  from  the  appearance  of  the  plant  what  is 
likely  to  be  in  a hill.  Plants  should  be  vigorous  and  healthy, 
but  on  account  of  the  great  number  of  varieties  it  is  impossible 
to  give  a rule  to  be  followed  in  all  cases. 


28 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


SUMMARY. 

1.  Large  areas  of  the  state  have  climatic  conditions  par- 
ticularly adapted  to  the  growth  of  potatoes.  The  soil  in  these 
districts,  if  properly  handled,  is  of  such  a character  that  it 
will  hold  enough  of  the  winter  and  spring  precipitation  to 
manure  a large  crop  of  tubers  without  the  help  of  rain  during 
the  summer  season.  The  dry  atmosphere  is  unfavorable  for  the 
development  of  the  worst  diseases  of  the  potato.  The  Colo- 
rado beetle  (Potato  bug)  is  rarely  found  in  this  state.  The 
long  bright  days  of  sumjmer  are  particularly  favorable  for 
the  formation  of  starch,  which  is  the  main  solid  constituent  of 
the  potato. 

2.  A deep,  friable,  mellow  loam,  rich  in  humus  and  well 
drained,  is  the  ideal  soil  for  potatoes.  Heavier  soils  may  give 
good  yields,  provided  manure  is  well  incorporated  into  it  or 
green  crops  are  plowed  under.  For  the  best  results  the 
physicial  condition  of  the  soil  should  be  perfect. 

3.  Barnyard  manure  is  the  best  fertilizer  and  may  be  ap- 
plied in  large  quantities,  provided  it  is  well  composted  and 
worked  into  the  soil. 

4.  Potato  land  should  be  plowed  in  the  fall,  left  rough  all 
winter,  and  harrowed  thoroughly  as  soon  as  dry  enough  in  the 
spring.  Deep  plowing  is  more  satisfactory  than  shallow  plow- 
ing. When  spring  plowing  is  practiced  the  harrow  should  im- 
mediately follow  the  plow. 

5.  Harrow  thoroughly  right  after  the  potatoes  are  planted 
and  at  intervals  of  a week  or  ten  days  until  the  plants  are 
from  two  to  five  inches  high.  Maintain  a dry  surface  mulch 
with  cultivator. 

6.  Level  culture  throughout  the  season  is  best.  Hilling 
should  not  be  practiced  except  on  very  wet,  low  land.  The  sun- 
burning of  potatoes  can  be  avoided  by  planting  deep  and 
placing  the  hills  close  together. 

7.  The  dry  soil  mulch  is  just  as  good  and  much  cheaper 
than  a straw  or  litter  mulch. 


Bulletin  No.  94 — Potato  Investigations 


29 


8.  The  time  of  planting  should  be  governed  largely  by  the 
climate  and  object  for  which  the  crop  is  grown.  Potatoes 
should  be  planted  at  a time  which  will  bring  the  blossom- 
ing period  when  there  is  ample  moisture.  When  new  potatoes 
are  desired  early  they  should  be  planted  as  early  in  the  spring 
as  the  soil  will  permit,  on  light,  warm  soil.  When  late  po- 
tatoes are  desired  they  may  be  planted  as  late  as  the  middle 
of  June,  provided  the  supply  of  moisture  is  continuous  and 
ample,  but  in  sections  where  the  summer  rainfall  is  slight 
the  earlier  all  crops  of  potatoes  are,  planted  the  better. 

9.  There  are  several  methods  of  planting  potatoes.  On  a 
small  scale  the  miost  satisfactory  method  is  to  drop  and  press 
the  seed  in  the  bottoms  of  furrows  made  by  a plow  or  single 
shovel  and  cover  them  with  a plow,  single  shovel,  or  harrow. 
The  horse  planter  is  satisfactory  when  large  areas  are  planted. 

10.  The  amount  of  seed  to  use  and  distance  apart  should  de- 
pend upon  the  fertility  of  the  land  and  supply  of  moisture. 
Rich  soil  with  a continuous  and  ample  supply  of  moisture 
should  receive  more  seed  and  the  hills  should  be  closer  to- 
gether than  on  soil  lacking  one  or  both  of  the  above  character- 
istics. 

11.  The  size  of  the  seed  piece  should  be  uniform,  regardless 
of  the  number  of  eyes. 

12.  The  depth  to  plant  depends  upon  the  texture  of  the  soil 
and  whether  early  or  late  potatoes  are  desired.  Five  inches  is 
none  too  deep  for  the  late  crop,  on  light  mellow  soils,  but 
three  or  four  inches  is  better  for  very  early  potatoes.  Five 
inches  is  too  deep  on  very  heavy  or  very  moist  soil. 

13.  New  potatoes  can  be  got  earlier  by  allowing  the  seed  to 
sprout  in  strong  light  before  planting. 

11.  A poor  stand  may  be  due  (1)  to  the  heating  of  seed  after 
cutting,  if  sacked  or  piled  up  for  more  than  six  hours;  (2) 
to  diseased  seed;  (3)  to  planting  early  in  wet,  cold  soil:  (4) 
to  chilled  seed ; and  (5)  to  late  planting  on  soil  that  has  dried 

out. 


30 


Washington  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


15.  There  are  several  methods  of  harvesting  practiced  in 
the  state.  Digging  by  hand  on  small  acres  is  most  satisfactory, 
but  for  large  areas  the  horse  digger  is  almost  indispensable. 

16.  More  attention  should  be  given  to  the  proper  grading  of 
the  tubers.  Well  graded  potatoes  bring  a larger  price  than 
poorly  graded  ones.  New  early  potaoes  should  be  washed  and 
packed  into  boxes  for  the  best  markets. 

17.  Potatoes  are  easy  to  keep  in  this  state.  They  will  keep  in 
pits  on  well  drained  land  *if  covered  sufficiently  to  keep  frost 
out,  or  in  any  frost-proof,  cool,  moist,  but  not  wet  storage. 

18.  The  potato  is  one  of  the  best  crops  to  grow  as  a substitute 
for  summer-fallow.  The  weeds  are  killed  and  soil  is  left  in  the 
best  condition  for  wheat. 

19.  Enormous  yields  of  potatoes  can  be  secured  under  irri- 
gation, provided  the  moisture  in  the  soil  is  uniform  and  con- 
tinuous. 

20.  All  samples  of  seed  of  a given  variety  are  not  of  equal 
value.  A person  should  have  an  ideal  in  mind  when  selecting 
a variety. 

•21.  The  following  varieties  produce  new  potatoes  early 
and  mature  early  in  the  season:  New  Queen,  Peck’s  Early, 
Pride  of  the  South,  Irish  Cobbler,  Early  Ohio,  White  Ohio,  Six 
Weeks,  New  Early  Standard,  King  of  Michigan,  New  Century, 
White  Star,  Early  Thoroughbred,  New  Climax,  and  Early 
Rose. 

22.  The  following  varieties  produce  new  potatoes  early  and 
mature  in  early  September:  Sweet  Home,  Champion  of  the 
World,  Early  Excelsior,  Rural  Red,  Crine’s  Lightning  White 
Victor,  Early  Hamilton  and  White  Rose. 

23.  The  following  varieties  produce  new  potatoes  early  but 

mature  late:  Burpee’s  Extra  Early,  Arcadia,  Bevee,  Early 

Jewel,  Algoma,  and  Crown  Jewel. 

24.  The  following  varieties  produce  good  marketable  tubers 
and  ripen  early  in  the  fall:  American  Wonder,  White  Lily, 
Carman  No.  1,  Pink  Eyed  Seedling,  Green  Mountain,  New  Bur- 


Bulletin  No.  94 — Potato  Investigations 


31 


bank,  Netted  Gem,  Sir  Walter  Raleigh,  Vermont  Gold  Coin, 
and  Washington  Wonder. 

25.  The  followin  gvarieties  yield  a large  crop  hut  mature 
late:  New  Late  Nebraska,  Burbank,  Gov  Folk,  Peerless,  Ross 
Favorite,  Rural  New  Yorker  No.  2,  Snowflake  Jr.,  Carman  No. 
3,  White  Beauty,  White  Mammoth,  North  Pole  Easterly,  Har- 
vest King,  Great  Divide,  and  North  Pole  Stinnett. 

26.  The  following  varieties  are  undesirable  for  market  pur- 
poses, but  advantageously  grown  for  stock  feed:  Johnson’s 
Seedlings,  Purple  and  Gold,  Pingree,  Red  Jacket,  and  Empress 
of  India. 

27.  Potato  seed  should  be  selected  in  the  field. 


STATE  COLLEGE  OF  WASHINGTON 

AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 
PULLMAN,  WASHINGTON 


INVESTIGATIONS  CONDUCTED  AT 

WESTERN  WASHINGTON  EXPERIMENT 
STATION 

PUYALLUP,  WASHINGTON 


Chou  Moellier  or  Marrow 
Cabbage 

By  W.  H,  LAWRENCE 


Bulletin  No.  95 

1910 


All  Bulletins  of  this  Station  sent  free  to  Citizens  of  the  State  on 
application  to  the  Director. 


BOARD  OF  CONTROL. 


Lee  A.  Johnson,  President Sunnyside 

E.  A.  Bryan,  Secretary  ex-officio,  President  of  the  College Pullman 

J.  J.  Browne Spokane 

Peter  McGregor Colfax 

R.  C.  McCroskey Garfield 

D.  S.  Troy Chimacum 


STATION  STAFF. 

(Pullman,  Wash.) 

R.  W.  Thatcher,  M.  A.,  Director  and  Chemist. 

Elton  Fulmer,  M.  A.,  State  Chemist. 

S.  B.  Nelson,  D.  V.  M.,  Veterinarian. 

0.  L.  Waller,  Ph.  M.,  Irrigation  Engineer. 

R.  K.  Beattie,  A.  M.,  Botanist. 

Walter  S.  Thornber,  M.  S.,  Horticulturist. 

A.  L.  Melander,  M.  S.,  Entomologist. 

W.  H.  Lawrence,  M.  S.,  Plant  Pathologist. 

W.  T.  McDonald,  M.  S.  A.,  Animal  Husbandman. 

C.  C.  Thom,  M.  S.,  Soil  Physicist. 

H.  B.  Humphrey,  Ph.  D.,  Plant  Pathologist. 

Leonard  Hegnauer,  B.  S.  A.,  Agronomist. 

Alex  Carlyle,  Cerealist. 

W.  T.  Shaw,  B.  S.,  Assistant  Zoologist. 

George  A.  OlsoN,  M.  S.,  Assistant  Chemist. 

E.  L.  Peterson,  B.  S.,  Assistant  Soil  Physicist. 

Rex  N.  Hunt,  M.  S.,  Assistant  Botanist. 

W.  H.  Hein,  M.  A.,  Assistant  Horticulturist. 

W.  L.  Hadlock,  B.  S.,  Assistant  Chemist. 

J.  W.  Kalkus,  D.  V.  M.,  Assistant  Veterinarian. 

M.  A.  Yothers,  B.  S.,  Assistant  Entomologist. 

STATION  STAFF. 

(Puyallup,  Wash.) 

W.  H.  Lawrence,  M.  S.,  Superintendent. 

H.  L.  Blanchard,  Assistant  Superintendent,  in  charge  of  Dairy  and 
Poultry  Investigations. 

Christian  Westergaard,  Assistant  in  Agricultural  Investigations. 

, Assistant  in  Horticultural  Investigations. 

L.  Janet  Silsby,  Stenographer  and  Laboratory  Assistant. 

Grove  L.  Stillman,  Farm  Foreman. 


CHOU  MOELLIER  OR  MARROW  CABBAGE 


BY  W.  H.  LAWRENCE. 


The  prevailing  high  prices  for  feed  for  dairy  cows  have  made 
the  search  for  new  and  promising  varieties  of  forage  plants 
a most  desirable  line  of  work.  Of  the  many  kinds  of  plants 
which  might  prove  to  be  of  value  for  hay,  ensilage  or  soiling, 
which  have  been  given  a trial,  none  have  given  greater  promise 
than  the  Chou  Moellier,  or  Marrow  Cabbage.  Some  informa- 
tion concerning  the  plant,  considered  to  be  of  much  interest 
and  value  to  the  dairymen,  is  herewith  given. 

HISTORY  OF  THE  PLANT. 

During  early  spring  of  1909,  Mr.  J.  G.  Hopkins,  of  Tukwila, 
Washington,  very  kindly  enclosed,  in  a letter  to  the  writer,  a 
newspaper  clipping  taken  from  an  agricultural  journal  (the 
name  and  date  of  which  cannot  be  given)  headed,  “Notes  from 
the  Channel  Islands.”  The  notes  given  were  concerning  Mar- 
row Cabbage,  which  are  quoted  below. 

“Within  the  last  two  months  an  Agricultural  School  has  been  opened 
in  Guernsey  by  the  ‘Brothers  of  the  Christian  Schools/  * * * These 

‘Freres’  have  just  introduced  a new  cattle  fodder  to  the  island,  which 
is  known  as  ‘Chou  Moellier’  or  marrow  cabbage.  This  is  the  result  of 
their  own  hybridization  and  experiments  with  Kohl  Rabi,  Kale  and 
the  Jersey  ‘chou’.  The  latter  is  the  tall  ‘butter  leaf’  cabbage  which 
grows  to  a height  of  from  ten  to  twenty  feet,  according  to  seasons,  etc. 

“The  Chou  Moellier  was  first  shown  at  the  Chrysanthemum  Show  in 
Guernsey,  November,  1905,  and  since  that  time  it  has  rapidly  grown  in 
local  public  favor.  Some  of  the  farmers  here  have  pricked  out  as  many 
as  10,000  plants.  Seed  is,  sown  about  May  and  in  the  end  of  June  the 
seedlings  are  moved  to  permanent  quarters.  The  Chou  stands  all 
through  the  winter,  being  perfectly  hardy  both  in  the  Channel  Islands 
and  in  Brittany,  and  I should  imagine  as  far  north  as  the  Midlands 
they  would  stand  an  average  winter.  There  are  two  special  qualities 
which  make  the  new  fodder  valuable:  first,  its  great  weight;  secondly, 


6 


Western  W ashington  Experiment  Station 


its  feeding  qualities  during  the  periods  of  drought  when  there  is  a 
general  shortage  of  food.  I have  recently  seen  stalks  cut  weighing  18 
pounds,  all  of  the  best  cattle  feed  with  no  waste  of  any  kind.  In 
height,  the  stalks  average  from  four  to  five  feet,  and  they  are  from 
five  to  six  inches  in  diameter.  I have,  however,  seen  some  six  feet  in 
height  and  two  feet  in  circumference.  The  stalk  is  of  solid  but  sweet 
and  juicy  ‘pith’  or  marrow,  hence  its  name.  There  is  no  hard,  woody 
or  fibrous  bark  such  as  the  ordinary  cabbage  stalk  possesses.  Chopped 
up,  the  cattle  consume  it  with  avidity;  indeed,  in  the  stock  yard  I 
have  seen  them  turn  from  mangold  and  beet  and  parsnips  to  feed  on 
the  chou.  As  a milk  producer,  it  is  about  equal  to  parsnips,  and  it 
does  not  give  the  objectionable  taste  to  the  milk  and  butter  which 
parsnips  do.  Experiments  have  proved  the  new  plant  to  be  very  valu- 
able as  a butter  producer.  A full  sufficiency  of  heat  is  engendered  by 
the  chou  moellier,  but  what  constitutes  one  of  the  leading  qualities 
is  the  fact  that  the  farmer  can  pull  an  abundance  of  excellent  leaves 
during  the  summer  and  autumn.  As  the  cabbage  grows,  the  lower 
leaves  are  pulled  regularly  about  once  a fortnight.  At  Les  Vauxbelets 
of  about  an  acre,  the  Freres  were  gathering  a van  load  of  the  long 
leaves  every  day  through  the  long  drought.  When  all  other  farmers 
were  complaining  of  a shortage  of  green  food  and  consequently  of  milk, 
the  Vouxbelets  cows  were  yielding  the  usual  quantity.  Indeed,  during 
the  driest  of  the  summer,  one  cow  was  giving  from  24  to  26  per  cent, 
of  butter.  The  plants  have  been  grown  about  13  or  14  inches  apart 
and  2 feet  between  the  rows,  thus  giving  each  other  support,  as  they 
are  now  standing  on  a very  exposed  part  of  the  estate.  The  new  food 
ought  to  be  shown  at  some  of  the  agricultural  shows,  and  would,  I be- 
lieve, very  favorably  impress  both  farmers  and  breeders.  The  young 
tops  are  used  by  the  Freres  for  their  usual  cabbage  soup.” 

Believing  that  this  forage  plant  would  prove  to  be  of  value 
in  Western  Washington,  and  particularly  so  in  the  Puget 
Sound  country,  a communication,  including  an  order  for  a 
small  number  of  seeds  of  this  plant,  was  sent  to  the  Agricul- 
tural School.  The  correspondence,  which  is  interesting  as  well 
as  very  instructive,  was  as  follows: 

"Puyallup,  Wash.,  Jan.  14,  1909. 

“ Agricultural  School,  Guernsey,  England. 

"Deab  Sirs:  I have  read  with  a great  deal  of  interest  a short  ar- 

ticle on  Chou  Moellier  or  Marrow  Cabbage,  which  appears  in  a news- 
paper clipping  sent  me  by  one  of  my  correspondents.  I have  charge 
of  the  introduction  and  testing  of  various  fodder  crops  for  the  western 
part  of  the  State  of  Washington.  This  part  of  the  United  States  is  a 
most  excellent  agricultural  region  and  is  especially  adapted  to  dairying. 
I am  very  desirous  of  determining  the  value  of  the  marrow  cabbage  in 
this  section.  You  certainly  have  a most  desirable  forage  crop  and  I 
have  no  doubt  that  it  will  prove  to  be  of  much  value  in  this  climate. 
Will  you  kindly  send  me  about  250  or  300  seeds,  if  you  are  able  to  spare 


Chou  Moellier  or  Marrow  Cabbage 


7 


them.  Of  course  I shall  gladly  pay  you  for  the  seeds.  As  I do  not 
know  the  value,  I am  taking  the  liberty  of  asking  you  to  send  them 
and  at  the  same  time  to  include  your  bill. 

“Thanking  you  in  advance  for  any  information  you  can  give,  and 
also  thanking  you  for  any  favors  you  can  show  me  concerning  the 
Marrow  Cabbage,  I remain  Very  resp’y  yours, 

“W.  H.  Lawrence,  Superintendent.” 

The  following  is  the  reply  to  the  above  communication : 

“The  Vauxbelets  Agricultural  School, 
“Guernsey,  Feby.  7,  1909. 

“W.  H.  Lawrence , Esq. 

“Dear  Sir:  In  reply  to  yours  of  the  14th  ult.  I have  the  pleasure 

of  sending  you  some  500  seeds  of  the  Marrow  Cabbage  and  hope  you 
will  give  it  a fair  trial.  It  is  considered  here  a wonderful  cropper,  and 
can  compete  with  any  fodder  crop  both  as  to  quality  and  quantity — at 
least  under  British  climate. 

“This  cabbage  is  sown  about  the  end  of  March  in  a seed  bed  and 
transplanted  end  of  June  on  good  and  well  manured  soil,  two  feet 
apart  every  way.  In  September,  the  bottom  leaves  can  be  pulled  and 
given  to  cattle  till  about  Christmas,  when  the  stocks  are  cut  in  suc- 
cession as  needed.  The  stock  is  quite  tender  and  forms  the  crop  proper; 
it  is  from  4 to  5 ft.  high,  weighing  from  14  to  20  pounds  each.  They 
may  be  given  to  cattle,  sliced  either  with  the  slicer  or  with  a knife. 
Cattle  eat  them  with  greediness,  as  they  are  not  watery  like  mangels. 
We  are  well  satisfied  with  this  fodder,  which  does  not  freeze  in  our 
climate.  We  cut  it  only  when  wanted. 

“I  hope  the  plant  will  do  well  with  you  and  when  you  have  tried 
it,  be  kind  enough  to  let  me  know  what  feeding  value  you  find  it.  You 
are  quite  at  liberty  to  spread  it,  if  you  thing  it  a paying  crop. 

“I  do  not  charge  you  for  the  seeds,  being  but  too  glad  to  help  my 
fellow  agriculturists  in  any  way  in  my  power. 

“Hoping,  dear  sir,  that  your  experimental  station  will  be  a source 
of  improvement  for  the  future  of  agriculture,  and  wishing  you  great 
success,  I remain  Faithfully  yours, 

“B.  Ananias.” 

PROPAGATION. 

During  May,  seeds  of  Marrow  Cabbage  were  planted  in  flats 
in  the  greenhouse.  From  the  time  the  young  plants  appeared 
above  the  surface  of  the  ground  until  they  were  transplanted 
in  the  field  they  were  given  the  same  care  that  is  necessary  to 
successfully  grow  cabbage  and  Thousand-Headed  kale.  Seeds 
were  also  sown  in  drills  in  the  field.  As  soon  as  the  plants  in 
the  flats  and  in  the  garden  were  large  enough  to  transplant 


8 


Western  Washington  Experiment  Station 


they  were  set  in  rows  in  the  field.  At  this  time  they  were  four 
to  six  inches  in  height.  They  were  set  eighteen  inches  apart  in 
rows  forty  inches  apart.  The  usual  method  of  transplanting 
as  recommended  for  Thousand-Headed  kale  and  cabbage  was 
followed. 

PREPARATION  AND  CULTIVATION  OF  THE  SOIL. 

A small  field  which  had  been  utilized  for  a pasture  for  several 
years  was  plowed  as  early  in  the  spring  as  weather  conditions 
would  permit,  thoroughly  disked  and  harrowed,  in  order  to  put 
the  soil  in  good  mechanical  condition.  A small  plot  of  light, 
sandy  loam,  which  had  been  utilized  for  farm  purposes  for  more 
than  forty  years,  plowed  during  the  fall  and  again  during  the 
spring,  was  also  prepared  for  this  crop.  The  ground  was  not 
given  any  special  attention  other  than  plowing  and  harrowing 
necessary  to  put  it  in  tillable  condition.  A black,  prairie  loam 
soil,  underlaid  with  gravel,  was  also  fitted  for  a limited  number 
of  plants.  The  fourth  type  of  soil  selected  consisted  of  a mix- 
ture of  clay  and  sand,  containing  considerable  humus.  This 
soil  is  very  mellow  and  easy  to  till.  In  the  preparation  of  this 
soil,  the  ground  was  plowed  eight  to  ten  inches  in  depth,  thor- 
oughly disked,  planked,  harrowed  and  disked,  in  order  to  make 
it  loose  and  mellow.  Furrows  six  to  eight  inches  in  depth,  aver- 
aging five  rows  to  the  rod,  were  made  with  the  plow.  Well  de- 
composed barnyard  manure,  consisting  of  a mixture  of  horse, 
cow,  goat  and  chicken  manure,  was  scattered  in  the  trenches. 
The  field  was  then  planked  and  harrowed  crosswise  in  order  to 
cover  the  compost  with  dirt  to  a depth  of  two  to  three  inches. 
The  plants  were  then  set  in  rows  above  the  compost.  As  soon 
as  they  overcame  the  wilt  and  the  ground  was  in  good  condi- 
tion for  tilling,  shallow  cultivation  was  given,  in  order  to  stir 
the  surface  soil  and  finish  filling  the  shallow  trenches  in  which 
the  young  plants  were  standing.  Surface  cultivation  was  given 
as  frequently  thereafter  as  necessary  to  keep  the  surface  soil 
loose  and  mellow  until  the  tops  were  too  large  to  admit  of  fur- 
ther cultivation. 


Chou  Moellier  or  Marrow  Cabbage 


9 


CHARACTERISTICS  OF  THE  PLANT. 

This  hybrid,  like  many  other  hybrids,  shows  a very  great 
variation  in  individual  plants.  There  are  all  sorts  of  inter- 
mediate forms  between  a good  type  of  Marrow  Cabbage  and 
Thousand-Headed  kale.  Very  fortunately,  however,  a large 
per  cent,  of  the  plants  were  true  to  type.  As  soon  as  the 
seedlings  overcame  the  wilt,  they  made  a rapid  growth.  During 
their  early  growth  they  cannot  be  distinguished  from  Thousand- 
Headed  kale  plants  with  any  degree  of  accuracy.  Later,  how- 
ever, the  stem  begins  to  show  a marked  increase  in  diameter. 
After  the  plants  attain  a height  of  eighteen  inches  to  two  feet, 
they  show  their  true  characteristics. 

Among  the  illustrations,  Figure  C and  Figure  E show  that 
the  plants  when  about  three  feet  in  height  are  destitute  of 
leaves  from  the  base  one-third  to  one-half  their  height.  At 
this  time  five  to  ten  leaves  have  been  removed,  leaving  large 
scars  on  the  stem.  As  a plant  grows,  the  leaves  nearest  the 
ground  mature  very  rapidly,  and,  if  not  gathered,  will  fall  off 
and  decay.  A few  days  after  a leaf  is  mature  it  begins  to  turn 
a light  yellow  color.  At  first  the  color  is  very  indistinct  but 
gradually  increases  until  it  is  very  conspicuous,  at  which  time 
the  leaf  separates  from  the  stem,  leaving  a large  scar.  The 
falling  of  the  leaves  as  they  mature  is  identical  with  the  falling 
of  the  leaves  of  all  decidious  plants  occurring  at  the  close  of 
each  year.  It  is  found  advantageous  to  remove  the  lower  leaves 
frequently,  in  order  to  collect  the  mature  ones  before  they  begin 
to  change  color.  When  mature,  the  leaf  will  separate  from  the 
stem  when  a slight  downward  pressure  is  exerted  on  the  stalk 
of  the  leaf  near  its  base.  The  break  is  clean,  leaving  a perfect 
scar,  since  at  this  stage  the  leaf  is  only  attached  to  the  stem 
with  a few  fibrous  strands.  It  was  observed  that  by  removing 
the  leaves  as  soon  as  mature,  a plant  will  make  a more  rapid 
growth  than  when  such  a practice  is  neglected.  It  is  also  notice- 
able that  a very  large  weight  of  forage  is  lost  if  such  a method 
is  not  practiced. 

The  general  shape  of  the  stem  may  be  noted  by  referring  to 


10 


Western  Washington  Experiment  Station 


the  figures  in  the  plate  which  appears  in  the  bulletin.  It  is 
also  observed  that  the  leaves  are  of  very  large  size.  Many  of 
them  grow  from  24  to  36  inches  in  length,  varying  up  to  14 
inches  across  the  blade.  The  stalks  of  the  leaves  are  also  very 
large.  The  plant  in  Figure  C stands  about  four  feet  in  height. 
The  plant  in  Figure  B stands  more  than  six  feet  in  height.  The 
latter  plant  has  a circumference  of  between  13  and  14  inches. 
Other  plants  between  four  and  five  feet  in  height  measured 
somewhat  larger  in  circumference — measuring  as  much  as  18 
inches  at  the  largest  place. 

The  remarkable  thing  concerning  this  plant  is  the  proportion 
of  succulent  feed  which  it  contains.  The  stem  is  easily  cut  off 
at  the  base  by  using  a small  pocket  knife.  The  outer  portion 
is  covered  with  a rather  thick  epidermis.  The  portion  which 
corresponds  to  the  bark  of  most  plants  is  thick  and  fleshy.  The 
woody  portion  consists  of  a very  narrow  layer,  which  is  repre- 
sented in  Figures  A,  D and  F as  a dark  line  near  the  outer 
edge,  and  is  very  thin,  composed  of  a series  of  interwoven 
strands.  The  inner  portion,  which  is  somewhat  lighter  in  color, 
consists  throughout  of  a very  rich,  succulent  meat  of  excellent 
flavor,  resembling  that  of  Kohl  Rabi.  As  shown  in  the  same 
figures  and  especially  in  F,  the  central  portion  of  the  stem 
consists  of  a cavity  of  variable  diameter.  The  flesh  is  more  or 
less  fissured,  and  especially  near  the  upper  end  of  the  stem.  The 
relative  proportion  of  the  meat,  as  compared  with  the  woody 
portion,  is  best  observed  in  the  four  cross  sections  of  a stem, 
as  shown  in  Figure  F.  The  dark-colored,  irregular  and  very 
narrow  ring  represents  the  woody  portion.  The  portion  lying 
outside  of  the  wood  consists  of  bark.  The  portion  lying  within 
consists  of  pith  or  marrow.  The  central,  irregular  portion  rep- 
resents the  cavity  of  the  stem. 

VALUE  AS  A FORAGE  PLANT. 

The  value  of  Marrow  Cabbage  as  a forage  plant  has  been 
discussed  at  some  length  in  the  above  correspondence.  At  this 
station  during  the  year  as  the  lower  leaves  matured  they  were 
pulled  and  fed  to  the  chickens  and  to  the  dairy  cows.  This 


Chou  Moellier  or  Marrow  Cabbage 


11 


green  stuff  is  greedily  eaten  and  was  apparently  keenly  relished 
in  all  of  these  feeding  tests.  In  a later  test,  a few  stems  were 
collected  and  fed  to  the  cows.  They  were  eaten  greedily.  No  ill 
effects  followed  feeding.  There  was  no  appreciable  effect  on 
the  quality  and  quantity  of  the  milk  and  butter.  At  the  time 
these  plants  were  fed,  they  were  substituted  for  Thousand- 
Headed  kale  in  the  daily  ration.  It  is  believed  that  this  plant 
can  be  grown  for  an  early  autumn  forage  as  advantageously  as 
Thousand-Headed  kale. 

COMPARATIVE  YIELDS. 

From  the  experiments  conducted  in  growing  Marrow  Cabbage 
and  Thousand-Headed  kale  under  exactly  the  same  conditions 
on  different  types  of  soils,  the  conclusion  is  drawn  that  Marrow 
Cabbage  makes  a more  luxuriant  growth  and  produces  a heavier 
yield  of  green  feed  per  acre.  The  results  of  the  experiments  on 
the  light,  sandy  loam  pasture  land,  the  old  sandy  loam  soil,  and 
the  black  loam  soil  were  about  equally  good.  In  the  main  ex- 
periments in  which  Thousand-Headed  kale  and  Marrow  Cab- 
bage were  started  in  flats  in  the  greenhouse  and  in  drills  in  the 
garden,  transplanted  at  the  same  time  on  rich  soil,  prepared 
as  described  above  and  given  precisely  the  same  cultivation  there*- 
after,  Marrow  Cabbage  produced  at  the  rate  of  80  tons  per 
acre,  while  Kale  produced  66  tons  per  acre.  It  is  evident  from 
these  tests  that  Marrow  Cabbage  will  produce  a heavier  yield 
of  succulent  food  per  acre. 

Since  such  a great  variation  in  size  of  plants  occurs,  selec- 
tion and  breeding  will  no  doubt  produce  a strain  which  will  give 
a greater  yield  of  fodder  per  acre  than  obtained  in  this  experi- 
ment. Some  plants  grew  to  a very  large  size.  The  largest 
one  weighed  18  pounds.  At  the  time  the  plant  was  weighed, 
more  than  a dozen  large  leaves  had  been  removed  or  had  fallen 
off.  A uniform  stand  of  plants  set  two  feet  each  way,  each 
weighing  18  pounds,  would  produce  a yield  of  98  tons  per 
acre.  Even  better  results  may  be  expected  from  Marrow  Cab- 
bage from  home-grown  seed. 


Western  Washington  Experiment  Station 


12 


HARDINESS  OF  MARROW  CABBAGE. 

In  order  to  ascertain  the  hardiness  of  Marrow  Cabbage,  the 
plants  were  allowed  to  stand  in  the  field  until  the  middle  of 
January,  1910.  In  the  meantime,  on  several  occasions,  severe 
freezing  weather  occurred,  during  which  time  the  thermometer 
fell  as  low  as  14  degrees  above  zero.  The  effect  of  freezing  on 
both  Thousand-Headed  kale  and  Marrow  Cabbage  was  very 
marked.  Many  of  the  leaves  of  kale  plants  were  badly  in- 
jured or  killed.  Also  some  of  the  kale  plants  did  not  survive 
the  lowest  temperature.  It  is  very  evident  that  this  hybrid  re- 
sembles Kohl  Rabi  in  its  frost-resisting  characteristics,  since 
during  this  freeze  a large  number  of  Kohl  Rabi,  which  had  not 
been  collected,  were  frozen  and  killed.  More  than  three-fourths 
of  the  Marrow  Cabbage  plants  did  not  survive.  About  thirty 
specimens,  however,  while  injured  slightly  in  most  cases,  were 
selected  and  stored  for  growing  a crop  of  seed  the  following 
year.  The  object  in  allowing  these  plants  to  stand  in  the  field 
during  the  winter  was  to  study  the  effect  of  alternate  freezing 
and  thawing  on  the  stems  and  leaves.  It  is  evident  that  Mar- 
row Cabbage  cannot  be  grown  and  left  standing  in  the  field 
during  the  winter.  It  is  believed,  however,  that  by  selecting  the 
hardier  plants  and  obtaining  seed  from  them  a strain  can  be 
developed  which  will  stand  as  low  a temperature  as  Thousand- 
Headed  kale. 

CHEMICAL  ANALYSIS. 

A chemical  analysis  of  this  plant  has  not  been  made  up  to 
this  time.  From  the  nature  of  the  plant  it  is  very  evident  that 
it  is  rich  in  protein  and  will  compare  very  favorably  with  Thou- 
sand-Headed kale.  In  case  a hardy  strain  can  be  produced 
which  will  stand  as  low  a temperature  as  Thousand-Headed  kale, 
Marrow  Cabbage  will  no  doubt  replace  the  former  in  a limited 
way,  especially  in  growing  small  amounts  of  green  stuff  for 
chickens.  A few  Marrow  Cabbage  plants  would  produce  a very 
large  amount  of  green  stuff  by  giving  the  plants  special  care 
and  by  pulling  the  leaves  at  the  right  time,  in  order  to  encourage 
a more  rapid  growth  of  the  stem  and  younger  leaves. 


Chou  Moellier  or  Marrow  Cabbage 


13 


LATER  EXPERIMENTS  WITH  MARROW  CABBAGE. 

The  Marrow  Cabbage  plants  which  have  been  stored,  if  they 
can  be  carried  through  the  winter,  will  be  “seeded”  during  the 
summer.  If  a supply  of  seed  can  be  grown  it  will  be  ready  for 
distribution  during  the  autumn  of  1910.  Dairymen  and  poul- 
trymen  interested  in  procuring  a few  seed  of  this  plant  for 
trial  may  have  the  same  on  application  to  the  Superintendent 
of  the  Western  Washington  Experiment  Station 


DESCRIPTION  OF  FIGURES  IN  PLATE. 


Fig.  A — One-half  of  a stem  of  marrow  cabbage.  The  stem  has  been 
sectioned  lengthwise. 

Fig.  B — A very  large  marrow  cabbage,  showing  the  characters  of  the 
stem.  The  leaves  which  have  been  badly  damaged  by  alternate  freezing 
and  thawing  have  been  reduced  to  stalks,  bearing  irregular-shaped 
fragments  of  the  blades.  The  plant  stood  more  than  six  feet  in  height. 
Notice  the  large  scars  on  the  stem  caused  by  the  leaves  falling  off 
during  the  summer  and  early  autumn. 

Fig.  C — The  same  plant  as  shown  in  Fig.  B when  about  four  feet  in 
height.  The  stick  standing  near  the  plant  is  three  feet  long.  This 
illustration  shows  the  nature  of  the  leaf  growth.  The  leaves  vary  up 
to  three  feet  in  length  and  are  from  ten  to  fourteen  inches  across  the 
blade  at  the  widest  portion.  Particular  attention  is  called  to  the  very 
large  stalks  of  the  leaves,  which  consist  entirely  of  succulent  forage. 
Note  the  scars  on  the  base  of  the  stem  where  several  leaves  have  been 
removed  previous  to  this  time. 

Fig.  D — A stem  of  marrow  cabbage  with  the  leaves  removed  and 
sectioned  lengthwise  to  show  the  general  shape  of  the  stem  and  the 
internal  structure.  The  entire  stem  is  edible.  The  woody  portion, 
which  is  very  thin,  is  represented  by  the  dark  line  near  the  outer  edge. 
The  parts  lying  around  the  wood  and  enclosed  by  it  are  very  tender  and 
fleshy,  resembling  kohl  rabi  in  flavor  and  texture.  The  stem  is  hollow, 
as  shown  by  the  irregular  fissured  central  portion. 

Fig.  E — A general  view  of  a few  marrow  cabbage  plants  as  they 
appeared  in  the  field  when  standing  at  a height  of  about  three  feet, 
as  indicated  by  the  yard  stick  leaning  against  the  leaves  of  one  of  the 
large  plants.  The  specimen  against  which  the  yard  stick  is  leaning, 
while  only  three  feet  tall,  measures  nearly  four  feet  across  the  top. 

Fig.  F — The  longitudional  section  of  the  stem  with  the  roots  at- 
tached as  shown  here  is  the  same  as  Fig.  D.  The  four  cross  sections 
show  the  comparative  size  and  arrangement  of  the  outer  or  bark  por- 
tion, which  is  of  a light  color;  the  woody  portion,  which  is  represented 
as  a very  narrow  and  very  irregular  dark  colored  ring;  and  the  marrow 
of  the  stem,  which  is  very  wide  and  somewhat  lighter  in  color  than  the 
ring  of  wood.  The  irregular,  dark,  central  portion  represents  the 
cavity  in  the  center  of  the  stem. 


MARROW 


STATE  COLLEGE  OF  WASHINGTON 
AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 
PULLMAN,  WASHINGTON 


INVESTIGATIONS  CONDUCTED  AT 

WESTERN  WASHINGTON  EXPERIMENT 
STATION 

PUYALLUP,  WASHINGTON 


Hatching  and  Rearing  Turkeys 
by  Artificial  Methods 

By  H.  L.  BLANCHARD 


Bulletin  No.  96 

1910 


All  Bulletins  of  this  Station  sent  free  to  Citizens  of  the  State  on 
application  to  the  Director. 


BOARD  OF  CONTROL. 


Lee  A.  Johnson,  President Sunnyside 

E.  A.  Bryan,  Secretary  ex-officio,  President  of  the  College Pullman 

J.  J.  Browne  Spokane 

Peter  McGregor Colfax 

R.  C.  McCroskey Garfield 

D.  S.  Troy Chimacum 


STATION  STAFF. 

(Pullman,  Wash.) 

R.  W.  Thatcher,  M.  A.,  Director  and  Chemist. 

Elton  Fulmer,  M.  A.,  State  Chemist. 

S.  B.  Nelson,  D.  V.  M.,  Veterinarian. 

O.  L.  Waller,  Ph.  M.,  Irrigation  Engineer. 

R.  K.  Beattie,  A.  M.,  Botanist. 

Walter  S.  Thornber,  M.  S.,  Horticulturist. 

A.  L.  Melander,  M.  S.,  Entomologist. 

W.  H.  Lawrence,  M.  S.,  Plant  Pathologist. 

W.  T.  McDonald,  M.  S.  A.,  Animal  Husbandman. 

C.  C.  Thom,  M.  S.,  Soil  Physicist. 

H.  B.  Humphrey,  Ph.  D.,  Plant  Pathologist. 

Leonard  Hegnauer,  B.  S.  A.,  Agronomist. 

Alex  Carlyle,  Cerealist. 

W.  T.  Shaw,  B.  S.,  Assistant  Zoologist. 

George  A.  Olson,  M.  S.,  Assistant  Chemist. 

E.  L.  Peterson,  B.  S.,  Assistant  Soil  Physicist. 

Rex  N.  Hunt,  M.  S.,  Assistant  Botanist. 

W.  H.  Hein,  M.  A.,  Assistant  Horticulturist. 

W.  L.  Hadlock,  B.  S.,  Assistant  Chemist. 

J.  W.  Kalkus,  D.  V.  M.,  Assistant  Veterinarian. 

M.  A.  Yothers,  B.  S.,  Assistant  Entomologist. 

STATION  STAFF. 

(Puyallup,  Wash.) 

W.  H.  Lawrence,  M.  S.,  Superintendent. 

H.  L.  Blanchard,  Assistant  Superintendent , in  charge  of  Dairy  and 
Poultry  Investigations. 

Christian  Westergaard,  Assistant  in  Agricultural  Investigations. 

, Assistant  in  Horticultural  Investigations. 

L.  Janet  Silsby,  Stenographer  and  Laboratory  Assistant. 

Grove  L.  Stillman,  Farm  Foreman. 


HATCHING  AND  HEARING  OF  TURKEYS  BY 
ARTIFICIAL  METHODS. 


BY  H.  L.  BLANCHARD. 


INTRODUCTION. 

Were  we  asked,  which  of  the  domesticated  fowls  of  the  United 
States  is  the  most  popular,  our  reply  would  be  “The  Turkey.” 
The  turkey  ranks  first  among  the  fowls  for  Thanksgiving  and 
the  Christmas  holiday  feasts.  Every  family  in  the  land  would 
greatly  appreciate  a turkey  dinner  upon  such  occasions,  yet, 
owing  to  the  great  scarcity  and  consequent  high  prices  that 
invariably  prevail,  it  has  always  been,  and  continues  to  be, 
impossible  for  the  turkey  producers  to  supply  the  demand,  in 
any  part  of  the  country.  The  consumers  throughout  the 
Northwest,  and  in  this  state  in  particular,  reluctantly  are  com- 
pelled to  accept  the  cold  storage  article  that  is  shipped  into  our 
state  by  the  scores  of  carloads  every,  year,  or  do  without  turkey 
for  Thanksgiving  dinner.  The  cold  storage  turkeys  are  much 
inferior  in  quality  as  compared  with  those  direct  from  the  farm, 
which  fact  is  becoming  understood  by  the  consumer,  hence  the 
demand  for  turkeys  is  not  growing  as  it  would  grow  could  the 
consumers  get  what  they  want  in  this  line,  namely,  a fresh  tur- 
key direct  from  the  farm. 

Statistics  show  that  the  turkey  production  of  the  United 
States  amounts  to  about  one  and  one-half  turkey  per  farm — 
only  a few  more  than  enough  to  supply  the  farmers  themselves 
— yet  more  than  three-fourths  of  our  population  live  in  the 
cities  and  towns  and  are  non-producers  of  food  products.  It 
is  safe  to  assume  that  at  least  nine-tenths  of  the  turkeys  pro- 
duced are  consumed  in  the  cities  and  towns ; thus  a very  large 


4 


Western  Washington  Experiment  Station 


percentage  of  those  who  produce  turkeys  (the  farmer’s  family) 
go  without  turkey  for  Thanksgiving.  They  feel,  owing  to  the 
high  prices  that  the  city  folks  are  willing  to  pay,  that  they, 
themselves,  cannot  afford  the  luxury;  hence,  they  sell  off  every- 
thing, retaining  nothing  in  that  line  for  themselves. 

Such  a condition  is  not  necessary  and  ought  not  to  be.  There 
is  no  good  reason  why  every  family  throughout  our  state,  so 
desiring,  should  not  have  a turkey  dinner  for  Thanksgiving  and 
Christmas  times,  as  well  as  upon  other  occasions. 

Feeling  that  an  experiment  in  growing  a flock  of  turkeys 
practically  in  confinement,  the  past  season  at  this  station,  will 
prove  of  great  value  to  the  people  of  our  state,  and  the  farmers 
in  particular,  this  bulletin  is  being  published  that  the  informa- 
tion contained  therein  may  become  of  practical  use  and  value 
to  our  producers  the  present  season,  as  well  as  for  all  time. 

SETTING  THE  MACHINE. 

About  the  first  of  June  we  secured  102  turkey  eggs  of  the 
Mammoth  Bronze  variety,  which  nicely  filled  the  tray  of  our 
150  hen  egg  incubator.  The  machine  had  previously  been 
warmed  in  the  usual  way,  and  at  the  time  the  eggs  were  placed 
in  the  tray  the  thermometer  registered  102  degrees.  The  mois- 
ture pan,  which  was  the  same  size  as  the  tray  and  located  be- 
neath and  two  inches  from  the  tray,  was  supplied  with  sand 
one-half  inch  in  depth,  which  was  thoroughly  saturated  with 
warm  water.  This  sand  was  kept  wet  enough  to  show  puddles 
of  water  on  its  surface  at  all  times  during  incubation,  by  daily 
applications  of  water  heated  100  to  103  degrees  Fahrenheit. 

TURNING  THE  EGGS. 

The  eggs  were  turned  once  every  twelve  hours — morning  and 
evening — beginning  on  the  third  day  after  they  were  placed  in 
the  tray,  and  continued  until  the  first  sign  of  hatching,  the 
pipping  of  the  egg.  The  turning  was  very  carefully  done  by 
first  removing  from  the  center  of  the  tray  about  one  dozen 
eggs,  and  then  carefully  rolling,  with  the  hand,  the  remaining 
eggs  toward  the  center  of  the  tray — just  enough  to  change  the 


Raising  Turkeys  by  Artificial  Methods 


5 


position  of  each  egg.  The  eggs  that  had  been  removed  were 
then  placed  in  either  end  of  the  tray. 

TEMPERATURE. 

During  the  first  week  a temperature  of  102  degrees  was 
maintained,  and  afterward  103  degrees,  with  but  slight  varia- 
tions. 

TESTING. 

On  the  tenth  day  the  eggs  were  tested  for  fertility,  four  clear 
eggs  being  found,  which,  with  the  three  that  were  cracked  in 
transit,  left  for  the  machine  just  ninety-five  eggs.  Of  these, 
four  more  were  taken  out,  at  the  second  testing,  which  occurred 
on  the  twentieth  day.  Thus  we  had  ninety-one  eggs  that  had 
stood  the  test. 

HATCHING. 

The  first  evidence  of  hatching  occurred  on  the  evening  of  the 
twenty-seventh  day,  and  by  the  evening  of  the  twenty-eighth 
day  the  hatch  was  complete,  resulting  in  87  poults — four  had 
died  in  the  shell.  The  day  following  the  hatch,  the  incubator 
door  was  left  ajar  about  one-eighth  of  an  inch,  which  was  in- 
creased the  second  night  to  one-quarter  of  an  .inch.  This  was 
done  to  gradually  harden  the  poults  in  their  preparation  for 
the  hover. 

BROODING. 

During  the  afternoon  of  the  second  day  after  the  hatch  the 
poults  were  placed  in  a hover,  in  the  brooder  house.  The  hover 
had  been  warmed  to  a temperature  of  90  degrees.  The  poults 
appeared  well  and  bright.  All  were  placed  in  one  hover,  which 
proved  to  be  a mistake,  for  the  following  morning  there  were 
several  dead  ones,  caused  by  the  young  things  deserting  the 
hover  and  piling  up,  many  of  the  underneath  ones  being  smoth- 
ered. About  thirty  were  thus  lost  in  a few  hours. 

When  reared  in  the  natural  way  and  seeking  to  be  hovered, 
the  poults  instinctively  duck  their  heads  and  creep  under  the 
mother  hen,  while  she  assumes  a settling  position.  The  poults 
having  thus  assembled  they  become  distributed  among  the 


6 


Western  Washington  Experiment  Station 


feathers  and  under  the  wings  of  the  hen.  The  warmth  from 
the  hen’s  body  satisfies  them.  They  become  quiet. 

Deprived  of  the  mother  hen  they  bunch  when,  in  their  search 
for  warmth,  a scramble  ensues,  each  poult  making  a desperate 
effort  to  get  under  the  bunch.  In  the  struggle  they  become 
surprisingly  entangled,  causing  a condition  that  brings  death 
to  the  weakest  ones  from  smothering. 

In  order  to  save  the  remaining  poults  they  were  divided 
among  three  hovers,  which  ended  the  losses.  These  hovers  were 
at  first  kept  at  about  90  degrees  temperature  for  about  a 
week,  when  they  were  reduced  in  temperature  about  10  degrees 
weekly,  until  down  to  70  degrees,  which  temperature  was  main- 
tained until  the  poults  were  about  six  weeks  of  age,  after  which 
time  they  do  not  require  artificial  heat.  They  were  permitted 
to  occupy  the  hovers  for  a couple  of  weeks  longer,  when  the 
hovers  were  removed  entirely.  Care  had  been  taken  in  keeping 
the  hovers  scrupulously  clean,  by  removing  the  dirt  and  sup- 
plying clean  chaff.  After  removing  the  hovers,  the  poults  were 
confined  to  their  nursery  rooms,  each  four  by  twelve  feet,  with 
an  outside  runway  four  by  twenty  feet.  It  was  found  neces- 
sary to  provide  additional  runways  as  they  rapidly  outgrew 
those  they  were  occupying.  At  four  months  of  age  they  were 
given  their  liberty.  They  would  not  range,  nor  travel  but  a 
few  rods  from  the  place  where  they  had  been  confined. 

FEEDING. 

Unlike  chickens,  the  young  poults  appeared  not  to  know 
where  to  find  their  food.  Teaching  them  to  eat  promised  to 
become  quite  a problem.  Failing  to  attract  them  to  their  feed 
in  other  ways,  a few  young  chicks  were  placed  in  the  nursery 
with  each  flock  of  poults.  It  was  surprising  how  aptly  they 
took  their  first  lessons  from  the  chicks.  Within  one  hour  the 
problem  was  solved  and  all  were  feeding  and  drinking,  with  no 
further  trouble.  The  first  feed  was  stale  bread,  moistened  with 
sweet  milk,  chopped  onion  tops,  grit  and  pure  water.  At  this 
lime  the  poults  were  nearly  three  days  old.  About  three  days 


Raising  Turkeys  by  Artificial  Methods 


7 


later  their  bread  feed  was  gradually  changed  to  commercial 
chick  feed,  cooked  milk  curds,  and  lettuce.  Three  or  four  days 
later  there  was  added  to  this  feed  dry  bran  and  beef  scraps — 
five  parts  bran  to  one  part  scraps — mixed  and  placed  within 
tneir  reach  in  shallow  boxes,  which  was  kept  before  them  all 
the  time  until  they  became  five  months  of  age.  A convenient 
hopper  for  this  dry  bran  feeding  we  find  to  be  a box  four  feet 
long,  six  inches  wide  and  six  inches  deep,  with  a strip  two  inches 
wide,  nailed  lengthwise  and  in  the  middle  along  the  top.  Supply 
this  hopper  daily,  just  enough  for  a single  day’s  feed — all  that 
the  poults  will  eat.  Fresh  green  stuff,  such  as  lettuce,  kale  or 
cabbage,  was  fed  liberally  daily — morning,  noon  and  evening; 
also  sweet  milk  and  fresh  water.  The  drinking  vessels  were 
washed  clean  daily.  A box  of  gravel  and  cracked  shells  and  a 
dust  bath  were  kept  in  their  nursery.  From  the  time  they  would 
pick  up  oats,  corn  or  wheat  their  grain  ration  consisted  of 
equal  parts  of  these  grains,  mixed  and  scattered  in  the  runway 
three  times  daily — as  much  but  no  more  than  they  would  eat. 
We  regard  that  the  most  surprising  thing  in  connection  with 
the  feeding  was  the  small  quantity  of  these  grains  consumed, 
which  was  evidently  due  to  the  very  liberal  supply  of  milk  and 
green  stuff  provided. 

PREPARING  FOR  MARKET. 

Two  weeks  before  these  turkeys  were  to  be  marketed  for  the 
Christmas  trade  they  were  weighed  separately,  when  one-half  of 
the  number  were  divided  into  lots  of  four  each  and  placed  in 
darkened  pens — admitting  the  light  only  at  feeding  times — 
while  the  remaining  one-half  were  confined  in  roomy  roosting 
quarters,  having  a runway  of  20  by  50  feet.  These  quarters 
were  not  darkened  in  any  way.  Both  lots,  in  lieu  of  the  mixed 
grain  and  dry  bran  feed,  were  fed  three  times  daily  of  the  fol- 
lowing fattening  ration — all  they  would  eat — making  the  change 
gradually : 

6 parts  corn  meal,  2 parts  middlings,  2 parts  beef  scraps, 
by  weight,  and  moistened  with  milk.  The  green  feed  was  fed 
as  before. 


8 


Western  Washington  Experiment  Station 


This  experiment  lasted  two  weeks.  The  birds  that  were  con- 
fined in  darkened  pens  made  no  gain  whatever  in  weight,  whi 
those  birds  that  had  more  liberty  gained  two  pounds  and  t 
and  one-half  pounds  each. 

These  birds  were  marketed  when  a little  more  than  five 
one-half  months  of  age,  when  the  pullets  weighed  13  ar  i 
pounds  each,  and  the  toms  17  to  19  pounds  each,  live  wei& 


THE  STATE  COLLEGE  OF  WASHINGTON 
AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 
PULLMAN,  WASH. 


INVESTIGATIONS  CONDUCTED  AT 

WESTERN  WASHINGTON  EXPERIMENT 
STATION 

PUYALLUP,  WASHINGTON 


ANTHRACNOSE 

OF  THE 

BLACKBERRY  AND  RASPBERRY 

By  W.  H.  LAWRENCE 


BULLETIN  NTo.  97 

1910 


All  Bulletins  of  this  Station  sent  free  to  citizens  of  the  State 
on  application  to  the  Director. 


E.  L.  Boardman,  Public  Printer,  Olympia. 


BOARD  OF  CONTROL. 


Lee  A.  Johnson,  President... Sunnyside 

E.  A.  Bryan,  Secretary  ex-o/ficio,  President  of  the  College Pullman 

J.  J.  Browne  Spokane 

Peter  McGregor Colfax 

R.  C.  McCroskey Garfield 

D.  S.  Troy Chimacum 


STATION  STAFF. 

(Pullman,  Wash.) 

R.  W.  Thatcher,  M.  A.,  Director  and  Chemist. 

Elton  Fulmer,  M.  A.,  State  Chemist. 

S.  B.  Nelson,  D.  V.  M.,  Veterinarian. 

0.  L.  Waller,  Ph.  M.,  Irrigation  Engineer. 

R.  K.  Beattie,  A.  M.,  Botanist. 

Walter  S.  Thornber,  M.  S.,  Horticulturist. 

A.  L.  Melander,  M.  S.,  Entomologist. 

W.  H.  Lawrence,  M.  S.,  Plant  Pathologist. 

W.  T.  McDonald,  M.  S.  A.,  Animal  Husbandman. 

C.  C.  Thom,  M.  S.,  Soil  Physicist. 

H.  B.  Humphrey,  Ph.  D.,  Plant  Pathologist. 

Leonard  Hegnauer,  B.  S.  A.,  Agronomist. 

Alex  Carlyle,  Cerealist. 

W.  T.  Shaw,  B.  S.,  Assistant  Zoologist. 

George  A.  Olson,  M.  S.,  Assistant  Chemist. 

E.  L.  Peterson,  B.  S.,  Assistant  Soil  Physicist. 

Rex  N.  Hunt,  M.  S.,  Assistant  Botanist. 

W.  H.  Hein,  M.  A.,  Assistant  Horticulturist. 

W.  L.  Hadlock,  B.  S.,  Assistant  Chemist. 

J.  W.  Kalkus,  D.  V.  M.,  Assistant  Veterinarian. 

M.  A.  Yothers,  B.  S.,  Assistant  Entomologist. 

STATION  STAFF. 

(Puyallup,  Wash.) 

W.  H.  Lawrence,  M.  S.,  Superintendent. 

H.  L.  Blanchard,  Assistant  Superintendent,  in  charge  of  Dairy  and 
Poultry  Investigations. 

Christian  Westergaard,  B.  S.,  Assistant  in  Agricultural  Investigations. 

, Assistant  in  Horticultural  Investigations. 

L.  Janet  Silsby,  Stenographer  and  Laboratory  Assistant. 

Grove  L.  Stillman,  Farm  Foreman. 


ANTHRACNOSE  OF  THE  BLACKBERRY  AND 
RASPBERRY. 


By  A.  H.  Lawrence. 

For  several  years  the  Snyder  blackberry,  which  is  grown  ex- 
tensively throughout  the  Puget  Sound  country,  has  not  been 
producing  good  returns,  on  account  of  a greater  or  lesser  per 
cent  of  the  fruit  failing  to  develop  properly,  for  shipping  or 
canning  purposes.  At  the  request  of  Mr.  W.  H.  Paulhamus, 
president  of  the  Puyallup  and  Sumner  Fruit  Growers’  Associa- 
tion, the  writer  made  a study  of  the  trouble.  The  cause  of  the 
trouble  and  the  method  of  preventing  it  have  been  determined. 
An  account  of  the  investigations,  with  recommendations,  are 
herein  given. 

THE  NATURE  AND  CAUSE  OF  ANTHRACNOSE. 

This  disease,  which  is  commonly  known  by  the  popular  name 
of  anthracnose,  is  caused  by  a very  small  form  of  fungus 
( Gloeosporimn  venetum),  consisting  of  two  parts — the  mycelium 
and  the  spores.  The  way  in  which  the  fungus  passes  the  winter 
is  not  known.  It  probably  lives  in  the  canes  and  fragments  of 
leaves  that  remain  in  the  field  after  pruning  is  done.  From 
field  observation  on  the  blackberry,  the  disease  attacks  the 
stems,  leaves  and  fruit  during  the  spring.  The  spread  of  the 
disease  is  caused  by  the  distribution  of  the  spores.  Some  of 
the  spores  lodge  on  the  host  plants.  When  the  climatic  condi- 
tions are  favorable,  the  spores  germinate  and  form  the  my- 
celium, which  penetrates  the  tissue  of  the  stems,  leaves  and 
fruit,  causing  spots  on  them.  The  mycelium  soon  gives  rise  to 
a large  number  of  short  branches  just  beneath  the  thin  outer 
coat  (epidermis).  Spores  are  borne  on  these  branches.  When 
they  form,  they  cause  the  epidermis  to  break  open.  These 
spores  are  held  together  by  a mucilaginous  substance  which  is 
soluble  in  water.  In  the  presence  of  moisture,  the  spores  are 
set  free  and  are  carried  about  by  the  wind  and  other  agents. 
Some  of  them  are  sure  to  lodge  on  the  various  parts  of  the 
host  plant. 


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Western  Washington  Experiment  Station 


KINDS  OP  PLANTS  ATTACKED. 

Among  the  varieties  of  blackberries,  the  Snyder,  Kittatany 
and  the  Himalaya  Giant  are  attacked.  The  Lucretia  dewberry 
is  also  susceptible,  while  the  Logan  berry  is  by  no  means  free 
from  the  disease.  Of  the  red  raspberries,  the  Antwerp  is  in- 
jured to  a considerable  degree,  while  the  Cuthbert  is  but 
slightly  affected.  The  Cumberland  black  raspberry  and  the 
Antwerp  are  equally  affected. 

Antwerp. — Anthracnose  attacks  the  leaves  and  stems  of  this 
plant.  The  spots  on  the  leaves  are  few  and  small,  but  not  unlike 
those  of  the  blackberry  in  general  appearance.  Those  on  the 
canes  vary  in  size  from  minute  dots  to  more  than  one  sixteenth 
of  an  inch  in  diameter.  A majority  are  well  developed.  They 
are  much  more  conspicuous  than  the  spots  on  the  canes  of  other 


Fig.  1.  Spots  on  the  stems  of  an  Antwerp  red  raspberry,  caused  by 
the  anthracnose  fungus. 


plants  mentioned.  The  central  portions  are  light  grey  to 
white  in  color,  the  margin  a reddish  brown  to  almost  black  in 
color,  while  the  infested  area  is  shrunken,  extending  the  greater 
part  of  the  way  through  the  bark.  When  they  are  abundant 
and  close  enough  together  so  that  they  merge,  large  irregular 
cankers  are  formed.  The  disease  is  more  abundant  in  old  fields, 
in  which  place  it  usually  does  considerable  damage. 

Cuthbert. — The  Cuthbert  is  only  slightly  susceptible  to  the 
disease.  Only  a few  canes  were  observed  with  spots  on  them. 
A A^ery  few  diseased  leaves  were  collected.  The  spots  are  not 
unlike  on  the  leaves  and  canes  of  the  Antwerp. 


Anthracnose  of  Blackberry  and  Raspberry 


5 


Cumberland.  — The  Cumberland  black 
raspberry  in  some  fields  is  also  badly  in- 
fested with  the  disease.  It  is  not  unlike 
the  same  disease  on  the  Antwerp  in  its 
general  appearance  and  effect  on  the 
plants. 

Snyder . — An  examination  of  the  whole 
plant  (a  hill),  late  in  the  summer,  shows 
that  not  all  parts  of  it  are  attacked.  No 
new  spots  appear  on  the  canes  which  bear 
the  crop  of  fruit,  or  the  branches  produced 
during  the  first  season.  New  ones  are  more 
or  less  abundant  on  the  fruiting  laterals 
which  are  produced  the  second  season.  All 
the  leaves  may  be  infested — those  on  the 
lower  fruiting  laterals  and  on  the  main 
cane  and  its  branches  particularly  so.  The 
shoots  (new  canes  or  current  year’s 
growth)  are  usually  well  covered  with 
spots  from  a few  inches  from  the  base  to 
a height  of  three  to  four  feet.  The  smaller 
and  younger  spots  are  at  the  upper  end. 
All  of  the  leaves  are  usually  also  badly  in- 
fested. Laterals  on  the  new  canes  are  free 
from  the  disease  except  at  the  very  base. 
The  leaves  on  these  laterals  do  not  become 
infested. 

1.  Disease  in  the  Stem. — The  spots  in 
the  stems  are  found  to  be  elliptical  in 
shape  and  have  somewhat  irregular  mar- 
gins. They  vary  in  size  from  less  to  three 
or  four  times  larger  than  a pin  head — 
usually  about  twice  as  large.  The  center 
is  a light  grey  to  nearly  white  in  color, 
while  the  margin  is  a deep  brown.  When 
these  spots  are  mature  in  size  they  are 
sunken,  and  oftentimes  split  open  length- 


Fig.  2.  Spots  on  the  stem  of  the  Lawton  blackberry,  caused  by  the 
anthracnose  fungus. 


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Western  Washington  Experiment  Station 


wise  with  the  cane.  They  usually  extend  nearly  through  the 
bark.  When  abundant,  irregular  patches  of  considerable  depth 
are  formed,  which  act  as  a partial  girdle  on  the  stem. 

£.  Disease  on  the  Leaves.- — The  spots  in  the  leaves  are  round 
and  smaller  than  those  in  the  canes — usually  about  half  as 
large  as  the  head  of  a pin.  The  centers  are  nearly  white  in 


Fig.  3.  A leaf  of  a Snyder  blackberry,  showing  a large  number  of 
small  spots  in  the  leaf  caused  by  antbracnose  fungus. 


Anthracnose  of  Blackberry  and  Raspberry 


7 


color,  while  the  borders  are  wider  and  of  a reddish-brown  color. 
These  spots  usually  extend  through  the  leaf,  and  when  they  are 
abundant  run  together,  forming  large  patches.  These  dead 
areas  drop  out,  leaving  holes  or  slits  in  the  leaves,  causing  them 
to  appear  as  if  whipped  by  the  wind.  The  injury  done  the  stem 
and  leaves  is  very  little  as  compared  with  the  injury  done  the 
fruit. 


3.  Disease  on  the  Fruit. — During  the  season,  the  latter  part 
of  which  is  unusually  dry  on  the  fruit  which  is  constantly  shaded, 
the  disease  is  most  abundant.  The  upper  drupels*  of  the  ber- 


Fig.  4.  Several  Lawton  blackberries  badly  infested  with  anthrac- 
nose.  The  healthy  drupels  are  plump  and  smooth,  while  the  diseased 
ones  are  dry  and  badly  shriveled. 


ries  are  also  more  often  attacked.  The  diseased  drupels  also 
usually  occur  in  clusters.  The  disease  may  attack  the  fruit  at 
any  stage  of  its  development.  The  greater  number  become 
infested  while  yet  green  in  color  and  sometimes  when  no  larger 
than  a pea.  When  the  fungus  attacks  the  fruit,  it  usually  finds 


*The  fruit  of  the  blackberry  consists  of  a short,  fleshy  branch,  bearing 
numerous  small,  fleshy  fruits  growing  close  together  called  drupels. 


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Western  Washington  Experiment  Station 


an  entrance  in  the  outer  end  of  the  drupel,  usually  near  the 
style  of  the  pistil.  There  is  seldom  more  than  one  spot  on  a 
drupel.  From  one  to  many  druples  may  be  infested.  Some- 
times every  drupel  on  a fruit  becomes  infested.  Evidently  on 
some  fruits  the  infection  takes  place  on  nearly  all  the  drupels 
at  the  same  time,  as  the  spots  are  all  about  the  same  size  and 
equally  well  developed.  On  other  fruits,  the  observations  made 
seem  to  indicate  that  infection  may  spread  from  one  drupel  to 
another,  since  on  some  badly  infested  fruits  the  oldest  infested 
drupels  are  at  the  center  of  the  group.  This  seems  to  be  true 
only  for  the  more  mature  fruits.  If  this  is  true,  the  infection 
comes  from  spores  produced  on  the  drupel  and  not  from  the 
fungus  growing  from  one  drupel  directly  through  into  another. 
The  fungus  matures  spores  on  some  of  the  infested  drupels  by 
the  time  they  are  about  to  turn  from  green  to  red. 

When  young  drupels  become  infested,  a small  brown  dot 
appears  on  the  surface  on  the  end.  These  areas  increase  rapidly 
in  size  and  soon  involve  the  entire  surface.  In  the  meantime, 
the  infested  portion  stops  growing,  the  surface  becomes  rough 
and  marked  with  nearly  white  lines,  caused  by  the  epidermis 
splitting  open.  As  the  fruit  matures  and  the  amount  of  wa- 
ter increases  in  them,  the  infested  areas  become  more  or  less 
shrunken.  The  spot  becomes  deeper  brown  in  color.  The  cen- 
ter of  each  may  become  white,  owing  to  the  development  of 
masses  of  spores.  At  this  stage  the  fruit  is  nearly  red  in  color, 
and  the  spots  are  very  conspicuous.  Infested  drupels  on  a 
well-matured  fruit  are  of  a dull  reddish  brown  color.  As  the 
drupels  mature,  the  proportion  of  water  in  the  berry  increases 
very  greatly.  If  infection  has  taken  place  early  in  the  season 
while  the  drupels  are  small  and  do  not  contain  much  water,  they 
will  remain  firm  and  finally  become  dry.  In  case  infection  takes 
place  when  the  drupels  contain  a considerable  amount  of  water, 
however,  they  will  crush  very  easily.  Fortunately  late  infec- 
tion is  rather  rare,  as  far  as  our  observations  go.  A greater 
number  of  drupels  on  ripe  fruit  are  dry  enough  so  that  they  do 
not  injure  the  shipping  quality  of  the  fruit.  When  the  drupels 
become  infested,  the  growth  is  only  partially  arrested.  They 
continue  to  grow  at  the  base  and  partially  mature,  but  do  not 
form  a saleable  berry. 


Anthracnose  of  Blackberry  and  Raspberry 


9 


Kittatany. — The  disease  attacks  the  Kittatany  the  same  as 
described  for  the  Snyder. 

Himalaya  Giant. — Of  the  Himalaya  Giant  the  leaves  are  the 
only  part  of  the  plant  that  is  susceptible.  The  spots  are  larger 
and  more  conspicuous  than  on  the  leaves  of  the  other  black- 
berries. 

Lucretia. — The  anthracnose  on  the  dewberry  (Lucretia)  dif- 
fers somewhat  in  general  appearance  and  action  from  the  same 
disease  on  the  blackberry.  The  fruit  very  rarely  becomes  in- 
fested, while  the  disease  is  very  marked  on  both  the  leaves  and 
stems.  The  shoots,  as  well  as  the  canes,  are  very  badly  infested 
on  the  stem,  from  a few  inches  from  the  ground  to  a height  of 
two  or  three  feet.  There  are  few  or  no  spots  on  the  upper 


Fig.  5.  Spots  in  the  stems  of  a Lucretia  dewberry,  caused  by  an- 
thracnose. 

ends  of  shoots.  It  is  also  noticeable  that  the  laterals  of  young 
shoots  are  seldom  attacked.  When  so,  the  spots  are  very  few 
in  numbers  and  only  grow  to  be  about  one-third  as  large  as  the 
spots  on  the  main  stem.  On  the  old  shoots  all  the  leaves  be- 
come badly  infested,  while  on  the  new  ones  the  stalks  of  the 
leaves  may  become  well  covered  with  spots,  while  the  blades  are 
entirely  or  nearly  free  from  them. 

The  spots  on  the  canes  are  sometimes  so  numerous  and  close 
together  that  they  merge,  forming  large  irregular  patches. 
As  a rule,  however,  they  are  well  scattered.  They  are  about 
two  or  three  times  as  large  as  a pin  head,  round  or  oblong  in 
shape,  and  somewhat  depressed.  The  dead  bark  in  these  spots 
is  nearly  white  in  color  and  each  is  surrounded  by  a reddish- 
brown  ring.  Even  the  very  small  areas,  when  viewed  closely, 
show  the  white  center  and  red  ring.  These  spots  on  the  bright 


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Western  Washington  Experiment  Station 


green  stems  give  the  stalk  a very  conspicuous  speckled  appear- 
ance. On  the  leaves  the  spots  are  even  more  conspicuous  than 
on  the  stems.  On  the  more  healthy  leaves,  the  young  spots  are 
minute  and  reddish-brown,  without  a white  centre.  These  older 
spots  are  markedly  conspicuous  on  badly  infested  leaves  that 
have  become  light  yellow  in  color.  This  variety  of  berry  plant 
is  injured  greatly  by  the  disease. 

EXPERIMENTS  WITH  ANTHRACNOSE. 

Inoculation. — Diseased  fruit  was  taken  from  the  field  and 
cultures  made  of  all  the  bacteria  and  fungi  found  growing  on  it. 
The  forms  isolated  (with  the  exception  of  the  form,  the  spores 
of  which  resembled  the  spore  of  the  fungus  causing  the  disease 
of  the  stems  and  leaves  known  as  anthracnose),  grew  readily 
and  were  soon  available  for  inoculation  purposes.  The  same 
plans  in  making  the  inoculation  were  followed  as  described  for 
inoculation  with  anthracnose,  as  explained  below.  Pure  culture 
of  these  organisms  did  not  produce  the  disease  on  the  fruit  in 
a single  instance. 

Owing  to  the  nature  of  the  growth  which  anthracnose  makes 
in  culture  media  spores  cannot  be  obtained  in  quantities  for 
inoculation  experiments.  Cultures  of  spores  from  the  stems, 
leaves  and  fruit,  however,  produced  the  same  identical  growth, 
showing  that  the  spores  are  those  of  the  same  fungus.  Since 
the  culture  gave  evidence  that  anthracnose  occurs  on  the  fruit, 
inoculations  were  made,  as  described  below. 

Diseased  berries  in  different  stages  of  maturity,  from  green 
to  ripe,  in  which  spores  of  the  fungus  had  not  developed,  were 
collected,  immersed  in  fifty  per  cent  alcohol  for  a few  moments, 
after  which  they  were  thoroughly  rinsed  in  sterilized  water  to 
remove  the  alcohol.  These  berries  were  then  placed  in  moist 
chambers.  In  these  cultures,  the  fungus  in  the  fruit  grew  from 
the  infested  areas  in  tufted  areas  and  in  tufts,  arranged  in 
circles  around  the  central  portion  of  the  diseased  areas,  or,  in 
some  cases,  the  rings  were  continuous,  since  the  tufts  were  so 
numerous  that  they  merged.  The  growth  of  the  fungus  in  these 
cases  can  only  be  determined  by  using  a lens,  since  the  growth 
under  the  naked  eye  appears  very  much  like  a white  residue  of 
some  salt  deposited  by  the  evaporation  of  water  in  which  it 


Anthracnose  of  Blackberry  and  Raspberry 


11 


occurred  in  solution.  The  study  of  the  fungus  must  be  brief, 
since  the  threads  collapse  quickly  in  a dry  atmosphere. 

On  July  20th,  short  fruiting  laterals  with  apparently  healthy 
berries  were  placed  in  water  to  keep  them  fresh.  Small  drops 
of  water  were  placed  on  the  drupels  and  spores  of  the  fungus 
from  diseased  fruit  were  placed  in  them.  At  the  end  of  fifteen 
hours  some  of  the  drupels,  mature  enough  to  turn  black  in 
color,  showed  signs  of  the  disease.  Other  and  younger  drupels 
showed  signs  of  the  disease  in  twenty-four  to  forty-eight  hours. 
About  one-fifth  of  the  inoculations  took  effect. 

On  the  26th  of  July,  fruiting  laterals  from  a patch  of  Snyder 
blackberries  that  had  not  begun  to  blight  were  placed  in  bot- 
tles containing  water  to  keep  them  fresh.  Each  branch  had 
berries  in  various  stages  of  maturity  from  green  to  ripe.  Drops 
of  water  were  placed  on  the  berries,  and  spores  taken  from 
spots  in  the  leaves  and  stems  of  diseased  Snyder  plants  were 
placed  in  them.  At  the  end  of  a week  when  the  fruit  had  be- 
come slightly  wilted,  numerous  spots  were  found  on  the  fruit 
in  all  degrees  of  maturity.  From  the  general  appearance  of 
these  spots  and  their  effect  on  the  fruit,  it  is  evident  that  a 
majority  of  the  spots  on  the  fruit  took  effect  shortly  after  the 
spores  were  placed  in  the  water. 

SPRAYING. 

Potassium  sulphide  (one  ounce  to  2^  gallons  of  water), 
copper  acetate  (1  ounce  to  8 gallons  of  water),  ammoniacal 
copper  carbonate  (1  ounce  to  16  gallons  of  water),  and 
Bordeaux  mixture  were  used  in  the  preliminary  tests.  The 
object  in  using  the  former  was  to  test  the  value  of  such  sprays 
as  would  not  leave  a residue  on  the  fruit.  Poor  results  were 
obtained  with  all  sprays  except  Bordeaux  mixture. 

How  to  Prepare  the  Spray. — Copper  sulphate,  4 or  6 
pounds ; lime,  4 pounds ; water,  50  gallons. 

Bordeaux  mixture  is  composed  of  a number  of  chemical  com- 
pounds formed  when  solutions  of  bluestone  and  milk  of  lime  are 
poured  together.  The  chemical  changes  which  take  place  are 
delicate,  and  in  order  that  they  take  place  correctly,  the  solu- 
tions must  be  diluted,  and  great  care  must  be  exercised  in  mix- 
ing. The  method  of  mixing,  as  well  as  using  dilute  solutions, 
not  only  has  an  important  bearing  on  the  chemical,  but  also  on 
the  physical  nature  of  the  mixture.  The  most  valuable  com- 


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Western  Washington  Experiment  Station 


pound  formed,  and  the  one  which  is  easily  modified  in  the  mix- 
ing, is  a bluish,  gelatinous  substance  that  has  about  the  same 
specific  gravity  as  the  fluid  in  which  it  is  suspended.  Of  the 
different  methods  tried,  the  following  has  given  the  best  results 
and  is  the  only  recommended: 

Bluestone  Solution. — To  prepare  this  solution,  the  bluestone 
can  be  dissolved  very  quickly  in  a small  amount  of  boiling 
water.  Place  the  bluestone  in  a wooden  vessel  and  pour  the 
boiling  water  over  it.  Pour  the  strong  solution  in  a barrel  and 
add  enough  more  cold  water  to  make  25  gallons.  The  solution 
may  also  be  prepared  by  placing  the  bluestone  in  a closely 
woven  sack  that  will  not  lint,  and  suspending  the  same  from  a 
stick  laid  across  the  top  of  a barrel,  so  that  the  bluestone  hangs 
just  beneath  the  surface  of  the  water  in  a well-filled  barrel. 
When  the  bluestone  is  all  dissolved,  remove  the  sack  and  add 
enough  more  water  to  make  25  gallons  of  bluestone  solution. 

Milk  of  Lime. — To  prepare  the  milk  of  lime,  place  4 pounds 
of  good  quicklime  (preferably  large  pieces)  in  a wooden  vessel. 
Add  enough  water  to  wet  it  thoroughly.  When  it  begins  to 
dry  and  crumble,  add  more  water.  Be  careful  not  to  add  enough 
to  chill  it  or  too  little  so  that  it  will  burn.  When  the  lime  has 
formed  a good  paste  and  is  still  slaking  slowly,  allow  the 
slaking  to  continue  and  the  paste  to  cool  before  adding  more 
water.  If  this  method  is  followed,  a smooth  paste,  free  from 
grit  and  small  lumps  of  lime  will  be  obtained,  provided  a good 
quality  of  lime  has  been  used.  Mix  the  paste  thoroughly  with 
25  gallons  of  water. 

Mixing. — To  mix  the  solutions  of  bluestone  and  milk  of  lime, 
two  men  are  required  to  do  the  work.  Pour  the  two  solutions 
slowly  in  such  a manner  that  they  mix  in  falling.  If  the  solu- 
tions fall  some  distance,  the  churning  motion  caused  by  the 
falling  column  of  water  aids  in  mixing.  After  the  solutions 
have  been  poured  together,  stir  the  Bordeaux  thoroughly,  using 
a wide,  wooden  paddle.  After  straining,  the  mixture  is  ready 
for  use. 

Testing. — The  spray  should  be  tested  to  see  if  enough  lime 
has  been  used  to  unite  with  all  the  bluestone.  Fill  a shallow  dish 
partly  full  of  the  Bordeaux  mixture  and  add  a few  drops  of  a 


Anthracnose  of  Blackberry  and  Raspberry 


13 


solution  of  ferro  cyanide  of  potash  (one  ounce  to  half  pint  of 
water).  If  a reddish-brown  color  appears,  add  more  lime  paste, 
stir  thoroughly  and  test  a second  time.  Continue  to  add  small 
amounts  of  lime  paste  until  the  reddish-brown  color  fails  to 
appear,  when  the  test  is  made. 

Stock  Solutions. — When  a large  quantity  of  the  mixture  is 
needed,  mixing  is  greatly  facilitated  by  preparing  stock  solu- 
tions of  both  the  lime  and  the  bluestone.  The  best  mode  of 
preparing  these  is  to  fill  a barrel  partly  full  of  water  and  sus- 
pend in  it  100  pounds  of  bluestone.  When  this  has  dissolved, 
remove  the  sack  and  add  enough  water  to  make  50  gallons. 
You  have  then  a solution  in  which  two  pounds  of  bluestone  are 
dissolved  in  each  gallon  of  water.  Prepare  a barrel  of  milk  of 
lime  in  the  same  manner  explained  for  slaking  the  lime.  When 
this  lime  solution  is  stirred  thoroughly,  each  gallon  of  water 
contains  two  pounds  of  lime.  To  make  50  gallons  of  the  Bor- 
deaux mixture,  measure  out  three  gallons  of  the  bluestone  solu- 
tion and  add  enough  water  to  make  25  gallons.  Measure  out 
two  gallons  of  the  milk  of  lime  and  add  enough  water  to  make 
25  gallons.  Stir  thoroughly,  pour  the  two  solutions  together, 
stir,  test  and  strain,  following  closely  the  directions  given  above. 

Applying. — In  applying  the  spray,  begin  at  the  top  of  the 
plants  and  work  downward,  giving  the  canes  a thorough  coat, 
and  wetting  the  entire  surface  of  every  leaf.  Do  not  use  too 
much  spray  or  it  will  collect  in  large  drops  and  run  off  and 
much  of  the  value  of  the  application  will  be  lost. 

CO-OPERATIVE  EXPERIMENTS.* 

Spraying  experiments  were  conducted  in  co-operation  with 
J.  P.  Gish  and  J.  S.  Friedley  at  Puyallup,  and  G.  J.  Anderson, 
Orton  Bros,  and  W.  H.  Paulhamus  at  Sumner.  Results  have 
not  been  as  gratifying  as  was  hoped  for,  but  are  good  enough 
to  encourage  the  use  of  Bordeaux  on  an  extensive  scale. 

Experiments  in  the  Gish  Berry  Field , 1907. — Four  rows  of 
Snyder  blackberries,  each  about  300  feet  in  length,  were  sprayed 
twice  with  4-4-50  Bordeaux.  The  first  application  was  made 
on  May  4th,  at  which  time  the  plants  were  nearly  in  full  leaf. 

*The  writer  wishes  to  acknowledge  the  assistance  and  hearty  co-operation  of 
Messrs.  Gish,  Friedley,  Clark,  Anderson,  Orton  Bros,  and  Paulhamus. 


14 


Western  W a shin gt  on  Experiment  Station 


The  second  application  was  made  on  May  21st,  just  before  the 
blossoms  opened.  Four  rows  of  the  same  length  were  left  as 
checks. 

During  the  season,  at  three  separate  pickings,  the  fruit  was 
sorted.  This  work  was  personally  attended  to  by  Mrs.  J.  P. 
Gish.*  At  the  first  picking,  two  crates  from  sprayed  rows 
gave  three-fourths  of  a box  of  blighted  berries.  The  same  num- 
ber of  boxes  from  rows  that  had  not  been  sprayed  gave  one  and 
one-half  boxes  of  blighted  berries.  At  the  second  picking  there 
were  ninety  boxes  on  each  of  the  sprayed  and  check  portions 
of  the  field.  Three-fourths  of  a box  was  discarded  from  the 
sprayed  lot  and  five  boxes  from  the  check  lot.  The  third  time 
the  fruit  was  counted,  twelve  boxes  from  check  hills  gave  195 
blighted  berries,  and  the  same  number  of  boxes  from  sprayed 
hills  gave  only  thirty  blighted  berries.  Sprayed  portions  gave 
per  picking  in  order  named:  1.5,  0.8,  1.0  per  cent,  blighted 
fruit.  Check  rows  gave  3.0,  5.5,  8.0  per  cent,  blighted  fruit. 

Shortly  following  the  spraying,  the  foliage  of  plants  grown 
on  sandy  loam  soil  on  sprayed  rows  for  a time  was  a much 
deeper  green  than  check  rows.  At  picking  time  this  difference 
was  barely  noticeable.  The  beneficial  effect  of  spraying  on  the 
leaves  was  not  noticed  on  plants  growing  in  heavy  soil.  The 
fruit,  however,  on  sprayed  rows  was  larger  and  more  glossy. 
There  were  among  the  unsprayed  berries  many  that  only  had  a 
spot  or  two  of  late  infection  that  were  not  considered  blighted 
but  which  were  detrimental  to  the  general  appearance  of  the 
fruit.  There  were  a few  late  infections  on  the  sprayed  berries. 
The  blight  increased  during  the  season. 

Experiments  in  the  Orton  Bros. 9 Berry  Field , 1907. — The 
field  of  blackberries  in  which  this  experiment  was  conducted  con- 
sists of  Snyder  and  Kittatany.  The  greater  portion  of  the 
plants  are  of  the  Snyder  variety,  with  scattering  hills  of  the 
latter  variety.  For  two  years  the  Kittatany  had  blighted  much 
worse  than  the  Snyder.  In  1906  the  field,  with  the  exception 
of  parts  of  three  rows,  each  eight  hills  long  (rows  7 feet  apart, 
6 feet  apart  in  the  row,  hill  system)  were  sprayed  twice  with 
2-3-50  Bordeaux  mixture  on  June  1st  and  10th.  When  the 


*Thanks  are  due  Mrs.  Gish  for  her  hearty  co-operation  and  the  creditable 
manner  in  which  the  data  from  this  experiment  were  recorded. 


Anthracnose  of  Blackberry  and  Raspberry 


15 


berries  were  gathered,  those  from  rows  which  were  not  sprayed 
showed  two  to  three  times  more  disease  than  the  fruit  from 
sprayed  ones. 

During  1907  some  of  the  rows  were  sprayed  with  6-4-50  Bor- 
deaux just  before  the  leaf  buds  opened  (last  of  March  to  first 
of  April).  Later,  and  just  before  the  flower  buds  opened 
(about  May  1st)  a part  of  the  rows  were  sprayed  a second  time 
with  4-4-50  Bordeaux.  During  the  season  no  injury  from  the 
spray  was  noticeable,  nor  was  there  any  beneficial  effect  on  the 
plants  other  than  the  reduction  of  the  amount  of  disease  on 
stems,  leaves  and  fruit,  with  the  exception  that  the  fruit  on 
rows  sprayed  twice  began  to  ripen  a little  earlier  in  the  season. 

Twice  during  the  season  a portion  of  the  picking  was  sorted. 
Twelve  boxes  were  picked  from  each  of  a check  row,  a row 
sprayed  once  and  a row  sprayed  twice.  The  check  rows  (two) 
gave  an  average  of  21%  blighted  fruit,  the  row  sprayed  once 
7%  blighted,  and  the  row  sprayed  twice  2.5%  blighted  friiit. 
About  two  weeks  later,  a similar  examination  and  count  was 
made.  The  check  row  gave  37%  blighted,  row  sprayed  once 
16%  blighted,  and  row  sprayed  twice  gave  8%  blighted. 

These  figures  show  that  two  sprayings  reduced  the  amount 
of  blight  more  than  two-thirds. 

Experiments  in  the  Anderson  Berry  Field , 1907. — At  two 
dates  during  the  picking  season  a small  amount  of  the  fruit  was 
gathered  and  sorted  from  rows  that  had  not  been  sprayed,  rows 
sprayed  once  and  rows  sprayed  twice.  4-4-50  Bordeaux  was 
used.  The  first  application  was  made  when  the  plants  were 
well  leafed  out  and  the  second  about  three  weeks  later,  before 
the  blossoms  opened.  The  first  sorting  of  fruit  showed  34% 
blighted  fruit  on  check,  25%  on  rows  sprayed  once,  and  16% 
on  rows  sprayed  twice.  A second  picking  a couple  of  weeks 
later  gave  50%  blighted  on  check,  33%  blighted  on  rows 
sprayed  once,  and  20%  on  rows  sprayed  twice.  These  results 
also  show  that  spraying  reduces  the  per  cent,  of  the  disease  and 
that  two  applications  are  more  valuable  than  a single  spraving. 

Experiments  in  the  Gish  Berry  Field  During  1908.— In  this 
experiment,  the  Snyder  blackberry  plants  sprayed  during  1907 
were  given  a single  application  of  4-4-50  Bordeaux  just  before 
the  fruit  began  to  turn  from  red  to  black.  The  fruit  was  sorted 


16 


Western  Washington  Experiment  Station 


on  August  11,  14,  17,  20  and  September  1.  The  per  cent,  of 
diseased  fruit  on  sprayed  plants  decreased  from  29%  to  12%, 
with  an  average  of  20%,  while  the  fruit  on  plants  that  had  not 
been  sprayed  gave  an  average  of  39%  diseased  fruit,  varying 
from  29%  to  42%.  In  the  inspection  of  diseased  berries  it  was 
also  noted  that  there  were  three  times  as  many  diseased  drupels 
on  fruit  which  had  not  been  sprayed  than  the  fruit  which  had 
been  coated  with  Bordeaux  mixture.  While  late  spraying  re- 
duces the  disease,  such  a practice  cannot  be  recommended,  as 
indicated  by  the  above  data. 

Experiments  in  the  Paulhamus  Berry  Field , 1908. — A field 
of  blackberries  of  the  Snyder  variety  were  sprayed  twice  with 
4-4-50  Bordeaux.  The  first  application  was  made  just  before 
the  flower  buds  opened  and  the  second  when  the  fruit  was  about 
the  size  of  a field  pea.  Notes  on  the  condition  of  the  fruit  were 
first  taken  during  the  fifth  picking  on  August  15th.  An  aver- 
age of  twelve  boxes  of  each  of  sprayed  and  unsprayed  fruit  was 
gathered  on  August  15,  16,  19,  21,  23  and  September  2.  Af- 
ter the  first  picking  the  per  cent,  of  blighted  fruit  gradually 
decreased  from  42%  to  11%.  The  average  of  diseased  fruit 
was  23%.  The  diseased  fruit  on  plants  that  had  not  been 
sprayed  gave  an  average  of  46%  diseased  fruit.  In  this  fruit 
there  was  also  a gradual  decrease  in  per  cent,  of  diseased  fruit 
from  61%  to  27%. 

As  indicated  by  the  data,  Bordeaux  is  a valuable  preventive 
against  this  disease.  Again,  as  has  been  pointed  out  above, 
there  was  a marked  difference  in  the  number  of  diseased  druples 
on  sprayed  and  unsprayed  fruit.  There  was  a much  larger 
per  cent,  on  the  unsprayed  fruit. 

Experiments  in  the  Friedley-ClarJc  Berry  Field , 1908. — A few 
rows  of  the  Lawton  blackberry  were  sprayed  with  4-4-50  Bor- 
deaux, when  the  fruit  began  to  change  from  red  to  black.  The 
berries  were  inspected  on  August  10,  14  and  22.  The  sprayed 
rows  gave  35%  diseased  fruit,  while  the  unsprayed  rows  gave 
49%  diseased  fruit.  There  was  an  increase  of  10%  in  the 
disease  on  unsprayed  fruit  during  the  twelve  days. 

Another  field  of  Lawton  berries  were  sprayed  with  4-4-50 
Bordeaux.  Two  applications  were  made.  The  first  was  ap- 
plied just  before  the  blossoms  began  to  open  and  the  second 


Anthracnose  of  Blackberry  and  Raspberry 


17 


just  before  the  fruit  began  to  ripen.  The  berries  were  inspected 
on  eight  different  days  from  August  3rd  to  August  23rd,  in- 
clusive. There  was  an  average  of  29%  diseased  fruit  on  the 
sprayed  row  and  41%  diseased  fruit  on  the  checks. 

A few  hills  of  Kittatany  plants  were  sprayed  twice,  in  the 
same  manner  as  described  for  the  Lawton.  Three  inspections 
were  made  (August  3,  10  and  13).  Sprayed  fruit  gave  30% 
diseased  fruit,  while  the  unsprayed  gave  40%. 

During  all  these  inspections  it  was  to  be  noted  that  the  num- 
ber of  drupels  on  diseased  fruit  from  sprayed  plants  were  less 
numerous  than  those  on  diseased  fruit  from  unsprayed  plants. 

CONCLUSION  AND  RECOMMENDATIONS. 

1.  Anthracnose  is  caused  by  a small  form  of  fungus. 

2.  Distribution  of  the  fungus  is  accomplished  by  the  spores. 

3.  Anthracnose  attacks  the  Snyder,  Kittatany  and  Hima- 
laya Giant  blackberries ; the  Lucretia  dewberry,  Logan  berry ; 
Antwerp  and  Cuthbert  red  raspberries,  and  the  Cumberland 
black  raspberry. 

4.  The  disease  is  very  injurious  to  the  Snyder  and  Kit- 
tatany blackberries,  attacking  the  stems,  leaves  and  fruit. 

5.  A microscopic  study  and  inoculation  experiments  show 
that,  the  same  fungus  occurs  in  the  spots  on  stems,  leaves  and 
fruit. 

6.  The  fungus  attacks  the  current  year’s  growth  of  shoots, 
when  they  are  six  inches  to  one  foot  in  height  and  later.  Spots 
do  not  occur  on  the  bases  of  these  shoots. 

7.  The  disease  does  not  spread  on  the  stems  and  its  leaves 
after  the  branches  form,  since  the  canes  and  its  leaves  are  in- 
fested, while  the  laterals  and  their  leaves  are  usually  free  from 
the  disease. 

8.  On  the  Snyder  and  Kittatany  blackberries  the  fungus 
spreads  from  the  stems  and  leaves  to  the  fruit  as  soon  as  the 
young  fruit  forms. 

9.  The  disease  continues  to  spread  on  the  fruit  during  the 
entire  season.  The  fruit  is  damaged  more  or  less  severely,  de- 
pending on  date  of  infection  and  the  number  of  drupels  on  each 
berry  that  become  diseased. 

10.  The  fungus  probably  lives  over  winter  in  the  berry  field 
in  the  leaves  on  the  ground  and  in  the  canes. 


18 


Western  Washington  Experiment  Station 


11.  To  check  the  ravages  of  the  disease  destroy  the  in- 
fested leaves  and  cut  out  badly  diseased  canes  and  shoots  before 
the  leaves  fall  off,  and  be  sure  to  burn  them.  In  order  to  kill 
the  spores  of  the  fungus  on  the  canes,  spray  with  4-4-50  Bor- 
deaux mixture  before  the  leaves  appear.  In  order  to  protect 
the  leaves  and  young  canes  the  plants  should  receive  a second 
application  of  Bordeaux,  when  the  leaves  are  well  out  and  by 
the  time  the  young  shoots  are  six  inches  in  height.  A third 
application  should  be  made  just  before  the  blossoms  appear. 


4? 


UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS-URBANA 

630.7W27B  C001 

BULLETIN.  PULLMAN 
85-97  1908-10 


3 0112  019907515 


